Английский язык материалы для подготовки к обязательному экзамену ответы

Билет 1.

Reading.

  1. It is about beauty of our motherland Belarus, its nature and traditions. The author is proud of being Belarusian and loves our country.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. He is proud of its wonderful nature, rich heroic history, national holidays and traditions and its people.

  4. If he were a talented painter, he would draw pictures with its beautiful landscapes, if he could compose verses, he would write lyric poems.

Listening.

  1. Whithny was going to college. She was a bit shy and reserved. She had to share a room with a complete stranger, she didn’t have friends there. So she was nervous.

  2. When she was asked about her goal at college, she was honest and answered, she wanted to have at least one true friend. One boy came to her, introduced himself and offered to become friends. Their friendship lasted for many years and brought them together in marriage.

  3. She learned to be honest, openhearted and take actions.

Билет 2.

Reading.

  1. This article is about fruitful and dynamic cooperation between Belarus and such international organizations as UNESCO. And about attractions of Belarus which have been included into the UNESCO World Heritage List.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. The Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park, The Mir Castle Complex, The Nesvizh Palace and The Struve Arc are included on the list for protection.

  4. Belarusian government wants to propose to add Independence Avenue in Minsk for inclusion into the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Listening.

  1. Choosing the right job is very important as it influences all our life like choosing a wife or a husband, a friend you can rely on.

  2. In our materialistic world young people choose well-paid jobs connected with business, modern technologies and politics and so on.

  3. The speaker advises us to take into consideration our talents, interests and abilities.

Билет 3.

Reading.

  1. This text is about the children’s opinions about ideal school and what they want to change in their school. Different pupils have different ideas.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. They want their school to be creative, valuable for their sociable and educational experience. Teachers should help them develop their individuality.

  4. Everybody has the right to be free, to choose what to be or not to be. So the children want more freedom.

Listening.

  1. The heating doesn’t work properly and the breakfast is very early in the morning.

  2. There was another boy in this room, he was snoring on the night and Peter couldn’t sleep.

  3. The man on reception promised to send an engineer to fix the heating.

Билет 4.

Reading.

  1. It’s about a 13yearold girl, who decided to keep a diary. She didn’t have a true friend, who can share her thoughts with. She wants her diary to be a patient friend.

  2. 2 абз.

  3. There are a lot of people around her, but she has only few close ones. They love parents, aunts and her 16yeraold sister.

  4. Anna started writing in a diary, because she felt alone, she didn’t have a true close friend, who she could trust her thought, dreams and ideas.

Listening.

  1. Alice worked in her uncle’s shop as a shop assistant in Australia.

  2. It was difficult to deal with customers, but the most difficult thing was money, as she made a lot of mistakes, but her uncle helped her to get out of trouble.

  3. She learned to understand people’s behaviors better; she has become more tolerant, serious and responsible.

Билет 5.

Reading.

  1. This article is about cyber bulling and the ways, who to avoid it. The author tells us bout SID which is organized every year in 74 countries.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. We should follow the tips given in the article, treat people online as you do in the real life, don’t ever post personal information.

  4. SID is a good way to stop abuse the Internet, because it helps people to use the Internet.

Listening.

  1. The conversation takes place at Abbey Health Club.

  2. The man is interested in where the gum is, if they have a yoga class, if there is a car park.

  3. 50 a month need to pay.

Билет 6.

Reading.

  1. It tells us about friendly loving family, they were going to celebrate Christmas, but the author brother Clifton didn’t get go for Christmas, as he saved the army, during the World War 2 and asked his family to keep Christmas tree, but he arrived. They did all the best to do it.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. He was one of the Tuskegee Airmen and was responsible for maintaining the airplanes flying off to fight in the World War 2.

  4. Clifton was eager to celebrate Christmas with his family, but he didn’t his manage , so he asked his family to leave the Christmas up until he made it back.

Listening.

  1. Homework puts her in a bad mood. She wants to relax instead of doing homework.

  2. She did very little homework in high school and didn’t get used to doing homework how at college.

  3. It develops a sense of logic, makes us more disciplined, intelligent and ready for future career.

Билет 7.

Reading.

  1. It is about Sam, a teenager girl; her mum didn’t let her go out anywhere, because there was a terrible mess in her room, until her room was tidy.

  2. 3 абз.

  3. Sam’s room was piled with a lot of things. There was a terrible mess. Her mum thought her room was condemned.

  4. She is not going to clean her room, because instead of it she decided to paint her fingernails.

Listening.

  1. Tina was going to Hong Kong from London.

  2. Tina’s flight was delayed from one hour to nine hours.

  3. There was a huge stormed the place stared bouncing. She was scared. Then the oxygen makes dropped down, she put it on and sat in absolute terror.

Билет 8.

Reading.

  1. It is about a girl who had a problem with algebra. Her granddad helps her to cope with algebra. She understands that it was possible to enjoy it. She discovered granddads inner world and they became friend.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. Her granddad loved algebra. He explained algebra is useful. It is mental fitness for people. The girl stopped been afraid of algebra.

  4. She learnt that granddads world is full of miracles. He was fascinated by riddles, by labyrinths. He was a lot of interests. So she discovered her granddad.

Listening.

  1. Whales sometimes throw themselves on the beach dirty water makes them that crazy as plants and factories throw rubbish into the water.

  2. People brought ropes and began to pull him into the water. It was hard and the wale began moving in the water.

  3. The memory stared in his heart forever, he decided to study the ocean and protect animals, he is a member of Greenpeace.

Билет 9.

Reading.

  1. It is about the importance of modern technology for communication. Now our life depends on it. We used phones, mobiles, Internet, they save our time and space. They have greatly changed all spheres of our life.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. For us they have changed everything. We can do time-consuming tasks in minutes; a lot of information is stored on tiny disks. Access to the Internet lets us keep up with global and current issues.

  4. Many people spend hours just chatting about silly, an important things, looking through sites for no reason, play computer games in hours.

Listening.

  1. The action takes place in the author’s grandmother’s big old house near London.

  2. All the furniture’s in my grandmother’s bedroom was on the left side of the room, and the carpet was on the other side of the room.

  3. They were scared, because the furniture was really heavy and they heard just a tiny noise. And granny said it had happened before and she didn’t maid.

Билет 10.

Reading.

  1. This article is about a successful family, about time that families should spend together, traditions which unite the family and about the importance of love in families.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. Traditions which include different norm, customs and views make a family united.

  4. That various from family to families. Families with young children spend most of their time together, families with teenager may spend less time together, but healthy families keep a good balance between «too much» and «not enough» time together.

Listening.

  1. The girl can’t stop eating chocolate.

  2. The girl things that her habit is harmful, because there are a lot of sugar and fat in all types of chocolate, that’s why she has many spots on her face and she is a little overweight too.

  3. She can’t stop eating chocolate, because there is always chocolate for sale wherever she is. And because when she tries to stop if she doesn’t have any chocolate, she gets very bad headaches.

Билет 11.

Reading.

  1. It is about a famous mathematician, astronomer and philosopher. Pythagoras and his achievements, his teaching methods and believes. But today he is still a mysterious figure.

  2. 2 абз.

  3. The people of Samous didn’t appreciate his teaching methods, they treated him improperly, wanted to involve him in local politics against his will, so he went to Italy.

  4. There are three types of people those who love wisdom, those who love honor and those who love wealth.

Listening.

  1. He is 99. He will be 100 in 2 weeks.

  2. His life was hard: he had to work much, he didn’t have enough to eat and he didn’t do exercises and spent a lot of time outside.

  3. He recommends to be active and to have a positive attitude.

Билет 12.

Reading.

  1. This article is about the most famous female pilot Amelia Earhart and about her difficult childhood, the way of life, which land her to unusual for women. She took several records and become famous and found her future love due to her passion.

  2. 2 абз.

  3. One day Amelia received an invitation to be the first woman ever to make the flight across the Atlantic from Canada to Britain.

  4. She became famous, because she broke several records when she flew the Atlantic solo.

Listening.

  1. They worry about the pollution in her bedroom.

  2. She thinks that it is not important, it is her own room.

  3. Father is afraid of plague. Her parents are old-fashioned and they get used to cheating their rooms so mother asked Nancy to place them.

Билет 13.

Reading.

  1. This text is about the stress of commuting. People are looking for ways to avoid stress and improve their life. The author gives us the idea how to avoid stress and reduce pollution.

  2. 2 абз.

  3. To reduce a pollution we can use environmentally friendly means of transport such as trains, met no system and carpooling.

  4. Carpooling is convenient, because it saves a people time and money, helps avoid stress.

Listening.

  1. If they have no friend, people feel lonely and unhappy. They have no friend to talk and shake sad or happy moments.

  2. A good friend should be shoving, caring, listening, doing something for another person, honest.

  3. It is good to be a real friend, because your life is full of meaningful, interesting, you feel the joy, and you will never be along.

Билет 14.

Reading.

  1. It is about an English boy named Ch. MrDonnell who was bored and decided to make his video blog and post it on YouTube. Soon he became popular and his audience grew, he used his famous to help people less fortunate than himself.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. He became popular when Oprah Winfrey, the famous American TV host, showed one of Charlie’s comedy videos called «How to be English» on her program.

  4. People like Charlie, because he is honest, modesty, he is a talented song writer, actor and singer, and he helps people less fortunate than himself.

Listening.

  1. Young people prefer to live with their parents in Hong Kong, because it is expensive to rent a flat, they must good care of their parents and spend more time with them.

  2. They supported his decision, because they thought it was a good idea to understand how good it was to live with parents.

  3. He gaved his personal space and freedom, saved travelling cost and time.

Билет 15.

Reading.

  1. It is devoted to ecological problems, residential building consume 27% of the total energy. It gives us an idea how to save energy and to save a builds. Everybody is responsible for reducing emissions.

  2. 4 абз.

  3. We can block up draughts, switch off unnecessary, light, make sure cold and hot water taps are not left running, and we also should use energy efficient light bulbs.

  4. Water of drinkable quality that used to flush the toilets unnecessary waste of energy used in water purification.

Listening.

  1. It is a fantastic of London by open-top bus.

  2. They will see M. T. museum, Oxford Street, Westminster Abbey, The House of Parliament, The London Eye, Tower Bride and Buckingham Palace.

  3. They don’t have any extra umbrellas, but the guide promised that it couldn’t rain as it is going to rain heavily he asked to return money.

Билет 16.

Reading.

  1. It tells us about MR Womack’s cottage, his attitude to it. His home is the castle for him; he does everything himself there so it is so dear for him.

  2. The last.

  3. He is very busy at home; he looks after domestic animals, works in the garden, grow cucumbers. He is skillful and does a lot of work in his house by himself.

  4. He calls himself Jack of all Trades, because he is a craftsman and he is able to do everything about his house himself.

Listening.

  1. Sally loved writing. She wrote some advice to her friend who was moving and her pen-friend advised her to write a book.

  2. Sally’s dad thought it was good, but he didn’t advise her to send it to publishers not to be disappointed if they didn’t like it.

  3. Her life didn’t change a lot. But she became more confident and was planning to write one more book.

Билет 17.

Reading.

  1. It tells us about M. T., her life was devoted to poor people, she was a simple nun, she did all the best to help the sick and the poor.

  2. 2 абз.

  3. One day she was on a train, she looked out of the window and saw dirty children sleeping in a doorway. Sick and dying people were lying on streets. She was shocked and decided to work with the poor. She is kind-hearted.

  4. She opened a school for the kids from poor families, she stared her own group of nuns who cared about poor and dying people. She also stared homes for children without families.

Listening.

  1. Jackie wants to become a PE teacher.

  2. She has chosen this profession, because she likes explaining things, helping people, she likes to work with young people, also she likes challenge.

  3. It is good for our mental well-being, for health, it keeps physically fit, beaches young people important life lessons: the importance of teamwork, discipline, fairness.

Билет 18.

Reading.

  1. It tells us about one of the most magnificent work of art, The Mona Lisa by L. da Vinci. Every hour about 1.500 people visit the Louvre Museum in Paris. It tells us what makes the ML. so special.

  2. 3 абз.

  3. Mona Lisa’s mysterious smile has fascinated everyone who has ever seen the painting. People find her smile divine; the portrait seems alive and real.

  4. It is a masterpiece; it is placed in a specially built area in a room with other great 16th century Italian paintings. Visitors have a better chance to appreciate the painting as a work of art rather than as a tourist attraction.

Listening.

  1. Christian wants to become a businessman.

  2. Kate needs to learn English for future career. She is going to be a tourist manages.

  3. He advises her to speak much as possible when she travels, because practice is important.

Билет 19.

Reading.

  1. It is about the Guinness Books of Work Records. There is a wide range of amazing facts on these pages. There is a helpful index in the back of the book, where we can find subjects of interest in an alphabetical order.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. The collection of records is divided into chapters on Space, Human Achievement, Sports and others. We can read about extremes in these spheres.

  4. This book can be interesting for the reader, because there are a lot of amazing facts in this book. It can motivate people to develop their skills and talents.

Listening.

  1. When he was 3, his brother was born; his parents decided they needed a larger name so they moved into a rented flat.

  2. The flat was not really large. But there were enough places for them and there were two bedrooms, a cozy-living room with a balcony and a bathroom.

  3. He is sharing the flat with are person at present.

Билет 20.

Reading.

  1. This text is about Dr. Rowland and her test of independent. From this text we find out that modern teenager are not ready for independent life and are not able to do the simplest things around the hour.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. Parents took the plug off the microwave and took out some good lights bulbs and put in light bulbs that didn’t work. They also made sure that there were other problems in the house: with an Italian coffee machine and one of the taps in the bedroom.

  4. On the one hand the children manage solve all the problems, but on the other hand they did in only using money and professional help. So we can say that they are not ready to independent life.

Listening.

  1. Tom visited his cousins, who rented a cottage near the seaside. They went water-skilling and had a lot of fun.

  2. While the boys were pulling Tom along, the engine suddenly stopped. The boat slowly began to drift out to sea. There was going to be a storm. The sky was dark, the boys were frightened, but soon they saw a life boat.

  3. There was going to be a storm, the see was dark and angry it makes him frightened.

Билет 21.

Reading.

  1. This text is about using technology in our everyday. We can’t imagine our life without technology devices. We can also learn some facts about online volunteering and how it helps people around the world.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. The author often uses TV. DVD game his favourite console. He always used his mobile phone or laptop.

  4. This work can support the poor and help charities who over wise would not have the funding to play for staff.

Билет 22.

Reading.

  1. This text is about a girl Jessica Winters and how she took part in a famous TV show «The Pretenders». We can read about the work she had to cope with during the show and about the result she achieved.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. She didn’t know that 2 of her friends had sent her name to TV Company to take part in the Pretenders.

  4. It is an exciting and useful experience for Jessica, because she gained a lot of confidence and she understood that she is capable of many thing decides her guilt job.

Listening.

  1. The first speaker likes China.

  2. Fabulous history, wonderful variety of nature, friendly people, and deli shies food make Italy his favourite place.

  3. There is a fantastic music, dancing, unusual nature and his favourite is the beef. He has never eaten food anywhere.

Билет 23.

Reading.

  1. It is about Spanish restaurant – Mi Luna. It represent us the atmosphere, the food, the service there. This place is popular with visitors; they enjoy Spanish cuisine, music, the decoration.

  2. 5 абз.

  3. People can feel a Spanish atmosphere it is painted with classical colors that are used in Spain – the red, yellow, white, and black, on the walk there are photos of Spanish bullfighters. You can enjoy Spanish music and dancing.

  4. It is popular with visitors; it is very busy they should book a table first.

Listening.

  1. She works hard all day, she is tied, and she hasn’t any time to enjoy Italy.

  2. Peter wants to make the best expression at his job interviews. He is looking for a job.

  3. She advices him to join networking groups, they are also looking for work and help each other.

Билет 24.

Reading.

  1. It is about Elderhostel, the educational and travel organization for older adults. It offers a large member of programs to keep fit, mental and physical well-being. They prevent them from illnesses.

  2. 1 абз.

  3. People study history, literature, art, modern issues. They do sports. They are involved in adventure programs.

  4. People keep a positive self-image; they are active take part in various activities. So the work has a very positive meaning.

Listening.

  1. The girl so Terry at a local dance he was so handsome. She was surprised when Terry asked her to dance instead of her best friends.

  2. They were in a lift. The boy was going to the first, but he stead with her all the way to the sixth and asked her out.

  3. He thought Amy was awful, because she ignored him, spent all night chatting and laughing with Tim.

Билет 25.

Reading.

  1. This text is about the Internet and its role in the modern world. It gives us many opportunities, but only when we used Internet sensibly. It is very important not to forget about other activities, important of our development.

  2. 2 абз.

  3. It is important to use the internet sensibly, because it gives people tools and we should use them within reasonable limits.

Listening.

  1. She works a lot and doesn’t have time for her, to enjoy hobbies, to see her children. She earns a lot, but has no free time.

  2. She enjoy his personal life, he plays tennis, works much better and feels happier.

  3. His lifestyle gives him a lot of freedom, he is happy. A lot of people in Japan get ill and die, because they work too much and hard.

Источник

Card 1. ARE YOU PROUD OF BEING BELARUSIAN?

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the newspaper opinion column and say in 2-3 sentences what it is about.

It is about beauty of our motherland Belarus, its nature and traditions. The author is proud of being Belarusian and loves his/ her country.

2

When did the author understand that he/she is proud of being Belarusian? Find this extract and read it aloud.

№ 1.

I am Belarusian because my parents who gave me life and brought me up are Belarusian. And what if I were born in a different country on a different continent? In my opinion, a sense of pride in your country, a sense of belonging to a particular nation develops in a person with time. Therefore, at my age, by the way, I am 18, I can say quite positively, that I am proud to live in Belarus.

3

What makes the author be proud of his/her Motherland?

He is proud of its wonderful nature, rich heroic history, national holidays, traditions, and its people.

4

What would the author do if he/she were a creative person?

If he were a talented painter, he would draw pictures with its beautiful landscapes, if he could compose verses, he would write lyric poems.

II/1

Why was Whitney worried about going to college?

Whitney was going to college. She was a bit shy and reserved. She had to share a room with a complete stranger, she didn’t have friends there. That’s why she was nervous.

2

How did she find a friend?

When she was asked about her goal at college, she was honest and answered, she wanted to have at least one true friend. One boy came to her, introduced himself and offered to become friends. Their friendship lasted for many years and brought them together in marriage.

3

What lesson did Whitney learn?

She learned to be honest, openhearted and take actions.

III

ACCOMMODATION

1. What types of houses do you know?

2. Is it true that the house reflects the personality of its owner?

3. What is your idea of a dream house/ flat?

4. It’s better to live in the country and work in the city. Do you agree with the statement?

5. “A man’s house is his castle”. Do you agree with the proverb?

Card 2. UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE LIST

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the newspaper opinion column and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This article is about fruitful and dynamic cooperation between Belarus and such international organizations as UNESCO and about attractions of Belarus that have been included into the UNESCO World Heritage List.

2

Belarus is a member of UNESCO. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№ 1.

Belarus joined UNESCO in 1954. For many years, Belarus has been building up fruitful and dynamic relations with international organizations. Belarus programme of UNESCO activities includes numerous interesting projects in the fields of education, science, information, communications, and, of course, culture. In October 1988, Belarus joined the Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Today four Belarusian sites have already been included into the UNESCO World Heritage List.

3

Which Belarusian sites are included on the list for protection?

The Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park, The Mir Castle Complex, The Nesvizh Palace and The Struve Arc are included on the list for protection.

4

What other sites does the Belarusian government want to be on the UNESCO List?

Belarusian government wants to propose to add Independence Avenue in Minsk for inclusion into the UNESCO World Heritage List.

II/1

Why is choosing the right job very important?

Choosing the right job is very important as it can influence the whole life of a person and it’s like choosing a wife or a husband, a friend you can rely on.

2

Which jobs are popular among young people at present?

In our materialistic world young people choose well-paid jobs connected with business, modern technologies and politics and so on.

3

What advice does the speaker give?

The speaker advises us to take into consideration our talents, interests and abilities.

III

EDUCATION

1. Is education today a must-have or a necessity?

2. What are the main differences between Belarusian and British educational systems?

3. “I’ve never allowed my schooling to get in the way of my education”. M. Twain. How do you understand these words of a famous writer?

4. What qualities and knowledge should a real professional possess? Does he/ she need English?

5. Reading books is the trend of the past. Do you agree?

Card 3. MY IDEAL SCHOOL

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the newspaper opinion column and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This text is about the children’s opinions about ideal school and what they want to change in their school. Different pupils have different ideas.

2

One of the children says that school should have a soul. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№ 1.

My ideal secondary school is a safe haven. It shouldn’t be a place you hate going to, but a place you enjoy attending. I believe it should be social, as well as educational experience. A school should always have a soul… there should always be laughter ringing through the corridors. (Angela, 15, Moscow)

3

What do the children want to change at school?

They want their school to be creative, valuable for their sociable and educational experience. Teachers should help them develop their individuality.

4

Why do the children want more freedom?

Everybody has the right to be free, to choose what to be or not to be. Therefore, the children want more freedom.

II/1

What is wrong with the accommodation?

The heating doesn’t work properly and the breakfast is very early in the morning.

2

Why did the boy oversleep?

There was another boy in this room, he was snoring at night and Peter couldn’t sleep.

3

What agreement did he reach with the person on Reception?

The person on reception promised to send an engineer to fix the heating.

III

ENVIRONMENT

1. What can ordinary people do to make the planet a safe place for themselves and the next generations?

2. Why is the Greenhouse Effect so dangerous for the people?

3. What way of pollution is more disastrous?

4. Why do rare species disappear in the forests all over the world?

5. How did the Chernobyl Atomic Power Station explosion in 1986 affect our lives?

Card 4. ANNA’S DIARY

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the part of a diary and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It’s about a 13yearold girl, who decided to keep a diary. She didn’t have a true friend, whom she could share her thoughts with. She wants her diary to be a patient friend.

2

The author writes when she decided to keep a diary. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№ 2.

“Paper has more patience than people.” I thought of this saying on one of those days when I was feeling a little depressed and was sitting at home with my chin in my hands. I was bored and wondering whether to stay in or go out. I finally stayed where I was and decided to start a diary. Yes, paper does have more patience, and since I’m not planning to let anyone else read this notebook, unless I should ever find a real friend, it probably won’t make a bit of difference.

3

What close people did Anna have?

There are many people around her, but she has only few close ones. They love parents, aunts and her 16-yearold sister.

4

Why did Anna start writing in a diary?

Anna started writing in a diary, because she felt alone, she didn’t have a true close friend to trust her thoughts, dreams and ideas.

II/1

What job did Alice do?

Alice worked in her uncle’s shop as a shop- assistant in Australia.

2

What difficulties did she have?

It was difficult to deal with customers, and the most difficult thing was money, as she made many mistakes, but her uncle helped her to get out of trouble.

3

What kind of knowledge and skills did she get at her first job?

She learned to understand people’s behaviour better; she has become more tolerant, serious and responsible.

III

BELARUS

  1. Why would you recommend visiting Belarus to a group of tourists?

  2. Why is Belarus called “a blue-eyed country”?

  3. How would you describe our people and their mentality?

  4. With what countries do we have economic relations?

  5. What can be called typically Belarusian?

Card 5. BE KIND AND STAY SAFE

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This article is about cyber bulling and the ways, of avoiding it. The author tells us bout SID that is organized every year in 74 countries.

2

The journalist writes how to stop bad messages on Twitter. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№ 1.

Everybody knows that we should be polite and kind to people in real life and online. Unfortunately this doesn’t always happen. Where you can report online abuse or online messages to yourself or your friends? Do you know how to report and complain about harmful information online? For example, if you see an inappropriate tweet on Twitter you can click on “more” and then choose “Report tweet”. You can then block all further tweets from that user.

3

What can we do to stay safe online?

We should follow the tips given in the article, treat people online as we do in the real life, we should never post personal information.

4

Why is SID a good way to stop abuse on the Internet?

SID is a good way to stop abuse on the Internet, because it helps people to use the source safely.

II/1

Where does the conversation take place?

The conversation takes place at Abbey Health Club.

2

What is the man interested in?

The man asks where the gum is, if they have a yoga class, if there is a car park.

3

How much do you need to pay monthly?

It’s £ 50 a month.

III

GREAT BRITAIN

1. What is the geographical position of the UK?

2. Who is the Prime minister of the UK today and what role does he/she play in the country?

3. What are the capitals of Wales, England, Scotland and Northern Ireland?

4. Do the British have any written constitution? Do they have laws?

5. What place would you like to visit in the UK?

Card 6. CHRISTMAS TREE

Task

The question

The question

I /1

Read the story and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It tells us about one loving family, who were going to celebrate Christmas, but the author’s brother Clifton couldn’t get home for Christmas, as he served in the army during the World War 2 and asked his family to keep Christmas tree. They did all the best to do it.

2

The family got a message from Clifton. Find the extract that says about it and read it aloud.

№ 1.

Just before Christmas in 1944, a letter arrived at our house in Philadelphia. The postmark was from Tuskegee, Alabama, so we all knew whom it was from. We excitedly gathered around Mother as she opened it.

My Dear Mother,

I did not get the leave I expected for Christmas. I will miss all of you. Please leave the Christmas tree up until I make it back. I hope to be home by March.

Love from your son, Clifton.

3

What was Clifton’s job?

He was one of the Tuskegee Airmen and was responsible for maintaining the airplanes flying off to fight in the World War 2.

4

Which facts show that all the family loved Clifton very much?

Clifton was eager to celebrate Christmas with his family, but he wasn’t able to come, so he asked his family to leave the Christmas up until he made it back.

II/1

Why does the first speaker dislike doing homework?

Homework puts her in a bad mood. She wants to relax instead of doing homework.

2

What does the second speaker have regrets about?

She did very little homework in high school and hasn’t got used to doing homework at college.

3

What are the benefits of doing homework according to the third speaker?

It develops a sense of logic, makes us more disciplined, intelligent and ready for our future career.

III

SCIENCE AND MODERN TECHNOLOGIES

1. What scientists do you consider to be the most prominent ones to influence the life of humanity?

2. What advantages do we have with the help of new achievements in the field of science?

3. Why are technologies changing all the time?

4. What are technologies you can’t live without today?

5. What drawbacks does technological progress bring to people?

Card 7. THE CONDEMNED ROOM

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the story and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about Sam, a teenage girl whose mum didn’t let her go out anywhere, because of a terrible mess in her room.

2

The author tells us about her brother’s room. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№ 3.

It wasn’t fair. She was always getting the Condemned sign. Her brother hardly ever did. And his room was really disgusting, with posters of rock stars and basketball stars and movie stars wearing tiny bikinis covering every inch of his walls. But, her mother pointed out, his floor was clean and his desk as well. That was all she cared about.

3

What made Sam’s Mum write a message?

Sam’s room was piled with a lot of things. There was a terrible mess. Her mum thought her room was condemned and she wrote a message to make Sam clean the room.

4

Is Sam going to clean the room? Why do you think so?

She is not going to clean her room, because instead of it she decided to paint her fingernails.

II/1

Where was Tina going to?

Tina was going to Hong Kong from London.

2

What happened at the airport?

Tina’s flight was delayed from one hour to nine hours.

3

Why was Tina scared during the flight?

There was a huge storm and the plane started bouncing around. She was scared. Then the oxygen masks dropped down, she put a mask on and sat in absolute terror.

III

ART

1. What do people do with the help of art?

2. What outstanding artists do you know? Are there any Belarusians among them?

3. It’s impossible to live without art. Do you agree with the statement?

4. What art would you like to take up?

5. People say that artists become famous only when they’re gone? Do you think today the situation is the same?

Card 8. GREAT GRANDAD

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the story and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about a girl who had a problem with algebra. Her grandad helps her to cope with algebra. She understands that it was possible to enjoy it. She discovered grandad’s inner world and they became friends.

2

The author says she had problems with algebra. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№1.

It was a funny and surprising thing that brought Grandad back to me. It was algebra. I couldn’t cope with algebra in my first year at secondary school, and it made me mad. “I don’t see the point of it,” I screamed. “I don’t know what it’s for!”

3

How did  the girl’s Grandad help her understand the subject?

Her grandad loved algebra. He explained to her that algebra was useful. It is mental fitness for people. The girl stopped being afraid of algebra.

4

What else did the author understand about her Grandad?

She learnt that grandad’s world is full of miracles. He was fascinated by riddles, by labyrinths. He had a lot of interests. The girl discovered her grandad.

II/1

How did Uncle Roger explain to the boy why the whales were on the beach?

Whales sometimes throw themselves on the beach as dirty water makes them that crazy because plants and factories throw rubbish into the water.

2

How did the people help them?

People brought ropes and began to pull the whale into the water. It was hard and the wale began move.

3

How did this event affect the story-teller’s life?

The memory stayed in his heart forever, he decided to study the ocean and protect animals, he is a member of Greenpeace now.

III

FUTURE CAREER

1. What makes a real professional?

2. What profession do you consider to be the most important?

3. Why are jobs connected with IT the best paid ones?

4. What subjects do you study in depth for the sake of your future profession?

5. Is it important to get a job satisfaction?

Card 9. AN INTERVIEW

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the interview with a British businessman and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about the importance of modern technology for communication. Now our life depends on it. We use phones, mobiles, the Internet, they save our time and space. They have greatly changed all the spheres of our lives.

2

What are the benefits of the computers? Read aloud the extract which describes them.

№1 (2).

Businessman: Yes. Everybody’s using all kinds of phones, mobiles and Internet services. I think the benefits of the computers cannot be denied. They save valuable time and space. Time-consuming tasks such as checking bank accounts can now be done in a matter of minutes and a large volume of information is economically stored on tiny disks. In addition, with immediate access to the Internet, we can always keep up with global and current issues and explore the world from the comfort of our homes.

3

How do businessmen benefit from using technological means of communication at their workplace?

For us they have changed everything. We can do time-consuming tasks in minutes; a lot of information is stored on tiny disks. Access to the Internet lets us keep up with global and current issues.

4

When are technological means of communication misused?

Many people spend hours just chatting about silly, unimportant things, looking through sites for no reason, play computer games for hours.

II/1

Where does the action take place?

The action takes place in the author’s grandmother’s big old house near London.

2

What happened to the furniture in the grandmother’s room?

All the furniture’s in my grandmother’s bedroom was on the left side of the room, and the carpet was on the other side of the room.

3

Why were Martin and his friend scared?

They were scared, because the furniture was really heavy and they heard just a tiny noise. And granny said it had happened before and she didn’t seem to mind.

III

FAMILY

1. Who do you turn to for a piece of advice in your family?

2. What family traditions do you have?

3. A family without children is like a flower that cannot bloom. Do you agree with the statement?

4. Everything in a child comes from the family. Do you agree with this?

5. Why are there generation gaps in almost all the families?

Card 10. WHAT IS A GOOD FAMILY?

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This article is about a successful family, about time that families should spend together, traditions which unite the family and about the importance of love in all the families.

2

The author explains what makes a successful family. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№1.

Building a successful family is like building a house. Both need a plan. The best way to be organised as a family is to talk about family matters. By doing this, families enjoy a special closeness and stability. Choosing to spend time with your family sends a message more powerful than words.

3

What makes a family united?

Traditions which include different norms, customs and views make a family united.

4

How much time should family members spend together?

That varies from family to family. Families with young children spend most of their time together, families with teenagers may spend less time together, but healthy families keep a good balance between «too much» and «not enough» time together.

II/1

What problem does the girl have?

The girl can’t stop eating chocolate.

2

What makes the girl think that her habit is harmful?

The girl thinks that her habit is harmful, because there is a lot of sugar and fat in chocolate, that’s why she has many spots on her face and she is a little overweight too.

3

Why can’t she stop eating chocolate?

She can’t stop eating chocolate, because there is always chocolate for sale wherever she is. And when she tries to stop if she doesn’t have any chocolate, she gets very bad headaches.

III

YOUTH AND SOCIETY

1. Why does the government pay attention to the development of the youth?

2. What opportunities do children have to enhance their personalities and develop their skills?

3. The new generation is the reflection of the society.Do you agree with the statement?

4. The elderly are better professionals than the young because they are experienced and wise and the employers should better take on such people instead of the young and inexperienced ones. Do you agree with this?

5. To be successful today young people don’t need to study at all. Do you agree with this statement.

Card 11. PYTHAGORAS

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about a famous mathematician, astronomer and philosopher Pythagoras and his achievements, his teaching methods and beliefs. But today he is still a mysterious figure.

2

Where did Pythagoras go to learn mathematics and astronomy? Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№2.

It is believed that Pythagoras was born on the Greek island of Samos. His father was a merchant, and as a child, Pythagoras travelled with him selling their goods. Pythagoras was well educated. He learned music and poetry and had three philosophers to teach him who introduced Pythagoras to mathematics and advised him to travel to Egypt to learn more about mathematics and astronomy. So in 535 BC, Pythagoras travelled to Egypt where he visited many temples and took part in discussions with priests. Many of the customs he learnt in Egypt he came to adopt. For example, the Egyptian priests refused to eat beans and wear animal skins, as did Pythagoras later in his life.

3

Why did Pythagoras go to Italy?

The people of Samos didn’t appreciate his teaching methods, they treated him improperly, wanted to involve him in local politics against his will, so he went to Italy.

4

What are the three types of men according to Pythagoras?

There are three types of people those who love wisdom, those who love honour and those who love wealth.

II/1

How old is Mr Cansler?

He is 99. He will be 100 in 2 weeks.

2

What kind of life did he have when he was young?

His life was hard: he had to work much, he didn’t have enough to eat and he didn’t do exercises and spent a lot of time outside.

3

What does he recommend listeners to do?

He recommends to be active and to have a positive attitude.

III

MASS MEDIA

1. What media do you use to find the information you need?

2. Why are mass-media called the fourth power?

3. Will the Internet change all the media we have in the future?

4. Why do all the news programmes end with positive pieces of news?

5. Do you watch news in English? Would you like to if you don’t?

Card 12. AMELIA

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This article is about the most famous female pilot Amelia Earhart and her difficult childhood. She held several records, became famous and found her future love thanks to her passion.

2

How did Amelia get interested in flying? Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№2.

After graduating from high school, instead of going to college, Amelia decided to study nursing. During the First World War, she worked as a military nurse in Canada. When the war ended she became a social worker back in America and taught English to immigrants. In her free time, Amelia enjoyed going to air shows and watching aerial stunts1, which were very popular during the 1920s. Her fascination with flying began when, at one of those shows, she took a ten­-minute ride, and from that moment on she knew she had to learn to fly.

3

What invitation did Amelia receive one day?

One day Amelia received an invitation to be the first woman ever to make the flight across the Atlantic from Canada to Britain.

4

Why did Amelia become famous?

She became famous, because she broke several records when she flew across the Atlantic solo.

II/1

What do Nancy’s parents worry about?

They worry about the pollution in her bedroom.

2

Why does Nancy refuse to do household chores?

She thinks that it is not important, it is her own room.

3

What arguments does Mum use to make Nancy clean the room?        

Father is afraid of plague. Her parents got used to having clean rooms, so mother asked Nancy to please them by tiding her own room.

III

MASS MEDIA

1. What media do you use to find the information you need?

2. Why are mass-media called the fourth power?

3. Will the Internet change all the media we have in the future?

4. Why do all the news programmes end with positive pieces of news?

5. Do you watch news in English? Would you like to if you don’t?

Card 13. THE STRESS OF COMMUTING

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This text is about the stress of commuting. People are looking for ways to avoid stress and improve their lives. The author gives us the idea how to avoid stress and reduce pollution.

2

The network of public transport has improved lately. Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№2.

Fortunately, there are various means of public transport to choose from within modern towns and cities. Sometimes, all we need to do is to change a few of our long-standing habits in order to discover a much more comfortable way of life. By simply planning journeys, not only can we save time and money, but we can also reduce stress levels dramatically. By using public transport everybody wins. Most towns and cities are well-covered by bus, tram and metro services. While making use of these services, you are also helping against increasing levels of pollution.

3

How can we help reduce pollution?

To reduce the pollution we can use environmentally friendly means of transport such as trains and use carpooling as an alternative.

4

Why is carpooling convenient?

Carpooling is convenient, because it saves time and money, it also helps avoid stress.

II/1

How do people feel if they have no friend?

If they have no friends, they feel lonely and unhappy. They have no friends to talk to or share sad or happy moments with.

2

What qualities does a good friend have?

A good friend should be loving, caring, listening, doing something for another person and honest.

3

Why is it good to be a real friend?  

It is good to be a real friend, because your life is full of meaning, interesting, you feel the joy, and you will never be along.

III

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

1. What countries are our main economical partners?

2. Why is bad peace better than a good fight?

3. Is it possible for a country not to have any relations with other countries?

4. What international organizations does Belarus take part in?

5. Why does our country have an advantageous geographical position?

Card 14. VIDEO BLOGGER

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about an English boy named Ch. MrDonnell who was bored and decided to make his video blog and post it on YouTube. Soon he became popular and his audience grew, he used his fame to help people less fortunate than himself.

2

Charlie says how the idea of making a video crossed his mind. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№1.

In April 2007, a 16­year­old English boy named Charlie McDonnell was studying for his exams. But he was bored, so he turned on his computer and started surfing the web. He soon found a website called YouTube and within minutes he was watching a video of another teenager sitting in his bedroom and talking to his computer about how bored he was. ‘I could do better than that!’ thought Charlie. So, using a cheap computer and a webcam, he made his first video blog and posted it on YouTube under the name Charlieissocoollike.

3

How did he become popular?

He became popular when Oprah Winfrey, the famous American TV host, showed one of Charlie’s comedy videos called «How to be English» on her programme.

4

Why do people like Charlie?

People like Charlie, because he is honest, modest, he is a talented song writer, actor and singer, and he helps people less fortunate than himself.

II/1

Why do young people prefer to live with their parents in Hong Kong?

Young people prefer to live with their parents in Hong Kong, because it is expensive to rent a flat, they must take good care of their parents and spend more time with them.

2

How did Huan’s parents react to his decision?

They supported his decision, because they thought it was a good idea to understand how good it was to live with parents.

3

What are the advantages of living on your own?

It gives you personal space and freedom, saves travelling cost and time.

III

NATIONAL CHARACTER AND STEREOTYPES

1. What are the most common features the Belarusians have?

2. «Typically American». What does it mean?

3. Do stereotypes rule the world?

4. What do most people think of the British?

5. Do all the English- speaking nations differ? What common features do they possess?

Card 15. MAKE YOUR HOME GREENER

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is devoted to ecological problems, residential buildings consume 27% of the total energy. It gives us an idea how to save energy and to save the building. Everybody is responsible for reducing emissions.

2

What energy saving features in the design of the building are used nowadays? Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№ 4.

New buildings have more energy saving features in their design. They can have a wooden structure, extensive insulation, electronic environmental controls, triple glazing5, a non-polluting heating system and a turf6 roof. However, it is how we deal with our present homes that will determine housing’s contribution to global warming. It’s down to each of us, so get insulating!

3

What can we do to cut carbon dioxide emissions from buildings?

We can block up water leaks, switch off unnecessary light, make sure cold and we also should use energy efficient light bulbs.

4

What is considered to be an unnecessary waste of energy used in water purification?

Water of drinkable quality that is used to flush the toilets is an unnecessary waste of energy used in water purification.

II/1

What sort of tour is it?

It is a fantastic open-top bus tour of London.

2

  What will the tourists see on the tour?

They will see M. T. museum, Oxford Street, Westminster Abbey, The House of Parliament, The London Eye, Tower Bride and Buckingham Palace.

3

  Why does the tourist ask to return the money?

They don’t have any extra umbrellas and it is going to rain heavily that’s why the tourist asked to return the money.

III

OUTSTANDING PEOPLE

1. Are all the famous people really prominent in terms of history?

2. What qualities should people have to become outstanding?

3. Practice makes perfect. How do you understand the statement?

4. Famous people make the history of their country as well as of that of the world. Do you agree with this statement?

5. In what sphere would you like to become a prominent figure?

Card 16. MR WEMMICK’S “CASTLE”

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the extract and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It tells us about Mr. Wemmick’s cottage and his attitude to it. His home is the castle for him; he does everything himself there, so it is so dear to him.

2

‘An Englishman’s home is his castle’. Read aloud the extract which proves this idea.

The last one (8).

‘Oh yes, I have got a hold of it a bit at a time. I have absolute ownership now. You know, the office is one thing, and private life is another. When I go to the office, I leave the Castle behind me, and when I come to the Castle, I leave the office behind me. If you don’t mind, I’d like you to do the same. I don’t want to talk about my home in a professional manner’.

3

3.  What do we understand about Wemmick’s home life?

He is very busy at home; he looks after domestic animals, works in the garden, grows cucumbers. He is skillful and does a lot of work in his house by himself.

4

4.  Why does Wemmick call himself Jack of all Trades?

He calls himself Jack of all Trades, because he is a craftsman and he is able to do everything about his house himself.

II/1

What made Sally write the book?

Sally loved writing. She wrote some advice to her friend who was moving to another town and that friend advised her to write a book.

2

2. What did Sally’s Dad think about the book?

Sally’s dad thought it was good, but he didn’t advise her to send it to publishers not to be disappointed if they didn’t like it.

3

3. How did Sally’s life change after publishing the book?

Her life didn’t change a lot. But she became more confident and was planning to write one more book.

III

TOURISM

1. What way of travelling is the most comfortable for you?

2. Have you ever travelled on a hot-air balloon? What are the advantages of this way of travelling?

3. What country/ countries would you like to visit in the future?

4.» When in Rome do as the Romans do». How do you understand the saying?

5. Would you like to travel round the world on foot? Why?

Card 17. MOTHER TERESA

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It tells us about Mother Teresa, whose life was devoted to poor people, who was a simple nun and did all the best to help the sick and the poor.

2

The author writes about Mother Teresa’s family. Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№2.

Mother Teresa was born in 1910 in what is now Macedonia. She was the youngest of three children. Agnes’ father died when she was a child. Her mother made dresses to support the family. Agnes’ mother also liked to do charity work, such as visiting the sick. Agnes often went with her, and she enjoyed helping these people.

3

Why did Mother Teresa decide to devote her life to people in need?

One day she was on a train, she looked out of the window and saw dirty children sleeping in a doorway. Sick and dying people were lying in the streets. She was shocked and decided to work with the poor. She was kind-hearted.

4

What did Mother Teresa do for people?

She opened a school for the kids from poor families, she stared her own group of nuns who cared about poor and dying people. She also started homes for children without families.

II/1

What does Jackie want to become?

Jackie wants to become a PE teacher.

2

Why has she chosen this profession?

She has chosen this profession, because she likes explaining things, helping people, she likes to work with young people, also she likes the challenge.

3

Why is it important for students to do sport at school?

It is good for our mental well-being, for health, it keeps physically fit, teaches young people important life lessons: the importance of teamwork, discipline, fairness.

III

ACCOMMO-DATION

1. What types of houses do you know?

2. Is it true that the house reflects the personality of its owner?

3. What is your idea of a dream house/ flat?

4. It’s better to live in the country and work in the city? Do you agree with the statement?

5. “A man’s house is his castle”. Do you agree with the proverb?

Card 18. THE MOST MYSTIQUE PICTURE

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It tells us about one of the most magnificent work of art, The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. Every hour about 1.500 people visit the Louvre Museum in Paris. It tells us what makes the painting so special.

2

Why is Mona Lisa smiling? Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№3.

Mona Lisa’s mysterious smile has fascinated everyone who has ever seen the painting. In his Lives of the Artists, written just a few years after Leonardo’s death, Giorgio Vasari wrote, ‘While painting Mona Lisa Leonardo employed singers and musicians to keep her happy and so avoid the sadness that painters usually give to portraits. As a result, there was a smile that seemed divine2 rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to find how alive and real it appeared.’

3

  What makes the Mona Lisa so special?

Mona Lisa’s mysterious smile has fascinated everyone who has ever seen the painting. People find her smile divine; the portrait seems alive and real.

4

Why is the painting displayed in an exceptional way?

It is a masterpiece; it is placed in a room with other great 16th century Italian paintings. Visitors have a better chance to appreciate the painting as a work of art rather than as a tourist attraction.

II/1

What does Christian want to become?

Christian wants to become a businessman.

2

  Why does Kate need to learn English?

Kate needs to learn English for future career. She is going to be a tourist manager.

3

  What piece of advice does Christian give to his friend?

He advises her to speak as much as possible when she travels, because practice is important.

III

FAMILY

1. Who do you turn to for a piece of advice in your family?

2. What family traditions do you have?

3. A family without children is like a flower that cannot bloom. Do you agree with the statement?

4. Everything in a child comes from the family. Do you agree with this?

5. Why are there generation gaps in almost all the families?

Card 19. BOOK REVIEW

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the book review and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about the Guinness Books of World Records. There is a wide range of amazing facts on these pages. There is a helpful index at the back of the book, where we can find the information in an alphabetical order.

2

The author describes how The Guinness Books of  World Records changed with time. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№1.

The Guinness Books of World Records1 have certainly changed a lot in the last 60 years. The first Guinness Book was published in August 1955 in London, in Britain. Most editions were small paperbacks printed in black-­and-­white and contained more text than photographs. Now, there are colour pictures on every page — and the book also includes 3­D images.

3

What information will you find in this book?

The collection of records is divided into chapters on Space, Human Achievement, Sports and others. We can read about extremes in these spheres.

4

Why can this book be interesting for the reader?

This book can be interesting for the reader, because there are a lot of amazing facts in it. It can motivate people to develop their skills and talents.

II/1

Why did the man’s family have to rent a flat for about a year?

When he was 3, his brother was born, his parents decided they needed a larger home so they moved into a rented flat.

2

What was their flat in the capital like?

The flat was not really large. But there was enough place for them and there were two bedrooms, a cosy living room with a balcony and a bathroom.

3

How many people is he sharing the flat with at present?

He is sharing the flat with one person at present.

III

FUTURE CAREER

1. What makes a real professional?

2. What profession do you consider to be the most important?

3. Why are jobs connected with IT the best paid ones?

4. What subjects do you study in depth for the sake of your future profession?

5. Is it important to get a job satisfaction?

Card 20. ARE YOU READY TO BE INDEPENDENT?

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This text is about Dr. Rowland and her test of independence. From this text we find out that modern teenagers are not ready for independent life and are not able to do the simplest things around the house.

2

Why did Dr Rowlands decide to test her children? Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№1.

Angela Rowlands recently tested her teenage children’s ability to do basic household jobs in the house. When Angela and her husband Ben went to Spain for a few weeks’ holiday on the Costa Brava, their son Mark, aged 18, and daughter Frances, aged 16, stayed at home to look after the house. The parents wanted to see how Mark and Frances would manage in the house on their own.

3

  What did the parents prepare for their children?

Parents took the plug off the microwave and took out some good lights bulbs and put in light bulbs that didn’t work. They also made sure that there were other problems in the house: with an Italian coffee machine and one of the taps in the bathroom.

4

  Do you think the children passed the test? Why do you think so?

On the one hand the children managed to solve all the problems, but on the other hand they did it only with big money and professional help. So we can say that they are not ready for independent life.

II/1

How did Tom spend his day off?

Tom visited his cousins, who rented a cottage near the seaside. They went water-skiing and had a lot of fun.

2

   What went wrong?

While the boys were pulling Tom along, the engine suddenly stopped. The boat slowly began to drift away to the sea. There was going to be a storm. The sky was dark, the boys were frightened, but soon they saw a life boat coming.

3

What made Tom feel frightened?

There was going to be a storm, the sea was dark and angry which made him frightened.

III

BELARUS

1. Why would you recommend to visit Belarus to a group of tourists?

2. Why is Belarus called “a blue-eyed country”?

3. How would you describe our people and their mentality?

4. With what countries do we have economical relations?

5. What can be called typically Belarusian?

Card 21. TECHNOLOGY

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This text is about using technology in our everyday life. We can’t imagine our life without technology devices. We can also learn some facts about online volunteering and how it helps people around the world.

2

The author disapproves of the way people use electronic devices. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№1.

Technology is everywhere. We see it any place we go to and, in fact, almost all of us carry some piece of technology with us every time we leave the house. We can’t imagine our life without them. But what we always forget, though, is just how useful and powerful technology can be when we want to help others.

3

What electronic devices does the author often use?

The author often uses TV, DVD game, his favourite console, his mobile phone or a laptop.

4

How can online volunteering help people?

This work can support the poor and help charities who otherwise would not have had the funding to pay for the staff.

II/1

What is the flat like?

It’s at 5 Oxford Street. There is a hall, a living room, a dining room, a kitchen, a bathroom and a bedroom.

2

What do Anna and Carlos like and dislike about the flat?

They like the big sofa in the living room, the big wardrobe in the bedroom and the desk in the bedroom.

They don’t like that the bathroom is small.

3

  What have they decided to do?

They decided to move in.

III

ANY ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRY

1. Do all the English-speaking countries speak the same language?

2. What English-speaking country would you like to visit?

3. Why are there so many countries in the world that speak English?

4. What is the flag of Canada like?

5. Why is English spoken in India even today?

Card 22. FROM LIBRARIAN TO POLITICAL REPORTER

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This text is about a girl, Jessica Winters, who took part in a famous TV show «The Pretenders». We can read about the problems she had to cope with during the show and the results she achieved.

2

The Pretenders is a famous TV programme. Read aloud the extract about it.

№1.

The Pretenders is a very successful and popular TV series. In each programme there is a contestant who has just four weeks to learn to do a completely new job. At the end of the month the contestant has to do a ‘test’, where he or she has to do the new job together with three other professionals. Three judges have to identify the one who pretends.

3

  How did Jessica make it into the programme?

She didn’t know that 2 of her friends had sent her name to TV Company to take part in the Pretenders.

4

  Why was it an exciting and useful experience for Jessica?

It was an exciting and useful experience for Jessica, because she gained a lot of confidence and she understood that she was capable of many things, after that she decided to quit her job.

II/1

What country does the first speaker like most?

The first speaker likes China.

2

What makes Italy a favourite place for the second speaker?

The fabulous history, wonderful variety of nature, friendly people, and delicious food make Italy his favourite place.

3

   Why does the third speaker like Argentina?

There is a fantastic music, dancing, unusual nature and the beef. He has never eaten such tasty food anywhere else.

III

NATIONAL CHARACTER AND STEREOTYPES

1. What are the most common features the Belarusians have?

2. «Typically American». What does it mean?

3. Do stereotypes rule the world?

4. What do most people think of the British?

5. Do all the English- speaking nations differ? What common features do they possess?

Card 23. MI LUNA

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about a Spanish restaurant – Mi Luna. It represents us the atmosphere, the food, the service there. This place is popular with visitors; they enjoy Spanish cuisine, music, the decoration.

2

The service in Mi Luna is very good. Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№5.

The service is pleasant, caring and quick. It makes you want to come back. The waiters just keep looking at your table to find out if you need something. If they see an empty glass, they immediately ask you if you want something else to drink. At all time, they are friendly and ready to clear all the used dishes from your table. They are always smiling because they are trying to make you feel comfortable and happy. They know each dish, so they are able to explain it to you.

3

  What makes Mi Luna look very Spanish?

People can feel the Spanish atmosphere as it is painted with classical colours that are used in Spain – red, yellow, white, and black. On the walls there are photos of Spanish bullfighters. You can enjoy Spanish music and dancing there.

4

  Why should visitors make reservations in Mi Luna in advance?

It is popular with visitors; it is very busy they should book a table first.

II/1

What does Margaret complain about?

She works hard all day, she is tired, and she hasn’t any time to enjoy Italy.

2

  Why does Peter need new clothes?

Peter wants to make the best impression on his job interviewers. He is looking for a job.

3

  What piece of advice does Margaret give to her friend?

She advises him to join networking groups, these are people who are also looking for a job and can help him.

III

YOUTH AND SOCIETY

1. Why does the government pay attention to the development of the youth?

2. What opportunities do children have to enhance their personalities and develop their skills?

3. The new generation is the reflection of the society. Do you agree with the statement?

4. The elderly are better professionals than the young because they are experienced and wise and the employers should better take on such people instead of the young and inexperienced ones. Do you agree with this?

5. To be successful today young people don’t need to study at all. Do you agree with this statement.

Card 24. WE ARE YOUNGER THAN WE EVER WERE

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

It is about Elderhostel, the educational and travel organization for older adults. It offers a large member of programmes to keep fit, both mental and physical well-being.

2

What kind of organisation is Elderhostel? Read aloud the extract which says about it.

№1.

Elderhostel, founded in 1975, is the world’s largest educational and travel organisation for older adults. Its aim is to excite people’s minds and enrich people’s lives promoting and encouraging different activities among the older generation. There are no examinations or marks. All that you need in order to enroll on a programme, is enquiring mind1 and an adventurous spirit. Also, of course, you need to believe that learning and discovery continue all your life. There are expert instructors and experienced group leaders for field trips and cultural excursions.

3

  What activities does Elderhostel offer?

People study history, literature, art, modern issues. They do sports. They are involved in adventure programmes.

4

  Why does the word ‘old’ have a positive meaning in Elderhostel?

People keep a positive self-image; they take part in various activities. So the word has a very positive meaning.

II/1

Why was the first speaker surprised?

The girl saw Terry at a local dance and he was so handsome. She was surprised when Terry asked her to dance instead of her best friend Vera Mills.

2

When did the second speaker ask the girl out?

They were in a lift. The boy was going to the first floor, but he stayed with her all the way to the sixth and asked her out that day.

3

Why did the third speaker think that the girl was awful when they first met?

He thought Amy was awful, because she ignored him, spent all night chatting and laughing with his friend Tim.

III

EDUCATION

1. Is education today a must-have or a necessity?

2. What are the main differences between Belarusian and British educational systems?

3. “I’ve never allowed my schooling to get in the way of my education”. M. Twain. How do you understand these words of a famous writer?

4. What qualities and knowledge should a real professional possess? Does he/ she need English?

5. Reading books is the trend of the past. Do you agree?

Card 25. QUALITY OF COMMUNICATION

Task

The question

The answer

I /1

Read the article and say in 2—3 sentences what it is about.

This text is about the Internet and its role in the modern world. It gives us many opportunities, but only when we use Internet sensibly. It is very important not to forget about other activities, important for our development.

2

The author says that the Internet offers exciting opportunities for youngsters. Find this extract and read it aloud.

№2.

The Internet neither belongs to nor is controlled by any one person, organisation or government. It gives all of us the opportunity to create materials for others to see. On the other hand, as in ordinary life, there are those who might use it for illegal purposes. The freedom of the Net offers exciting opportunities for youngsters and, by being aware of the possible dangers and taking steps to avoid them, they can happily explore that online world in safety.

3

What is surfing the Internet compared to?

The Internet is compared to a superhighway where the youngsters should be given instructions on road safety.

4

Why is it important to use the Internet sensibly?

It is important to use the Internet sensibly, because it gives people tools and we should use them within reasonable limits.

II/1

What does the first speaker complain about?

She works a lot and doesn’t have time to enjoy hobbies, to see her children. She earns a lot, but has no free time.

2

   How has the life style of the second speaker changed?

She enjoys her personal life,s he plays tennis, works much better and feels happier.

3

What does the third speaker think about his way of life and the typical Japanese work-life balance?

His lifestyle gives him a lot of freedom, he is happy. A lot of people in Japan get ill and die, because they work too much and hard.

III

TOURISM

1. What way of travelling is the most comfortable for you?

2. Have you ever travelled on a hot-air balloon? What are the advantages of this way of travelling?

3. What country/ countries would you like to visit in the future?

4.» When in Rome do as the Romans do». How do you understand the saying?

5. Would you like to travel round the world on foot? Why?
Источник

ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ

1.Word-Formation Ways. Some Disputable
Questions of Word-Formation

Word-formation is creating new words from
the material available in the language after certain formulas and patterns.

There are the following principal types of
word-formation in Modern English:

1) Affixation (or progressive derivation)
— prefixation and suffixation — is the formation of words by adding
derivational affixes to stems. Prefixation is the formation of words with the
help of prefixes (ab-normal, impossible asleep). Suffixation is the formation
of words with the help of suffixes (happiness, quick-ly, ageism).

2) Conversion is the formation of words
without using specific word-building affixes; a kind of transposition by which
the shift of a word from one part of speech to another comes about in such a
way that the word form of one part of speech (or its stem) is used without any
material change as a representative of another part of speech (salt, n — salt,
v; jump, v — jump, n). In cases of conversion the word-building means is a
morphological paradigm (A.I.Smirnitsky), namely — the capacity of a paradigm
and endings forming it to express the meaning of the part of speech. Ex the
noun farther has the following paradigm father fathers ‘s s’ When the n father
the to father is formed whith the help of c.,the paradigm is change (I father
he fathers). But in c. we also have the change of the syntactic functions. In
the sentence She adored her father father is the object He fathered 2 children
– predicate. That is whyc. Is often called the morphological-syntactic way of
w-f

3) Word-composition is the formation of
words by morphologically joining two (or more) stems.eg night-club man-jf-war
passer-by.

4) Shortening is the process of
subtracting phonemes and/or morphemes of words and word-groups without changing
their lexico-grammatical meaning. There are three structural types of
shortenings:

1) abbreviations;

2) blends (blendings, fusions, portmanteau
words);

3) clippings.

Abbreviations is a process of shortening
the result of which is a word made up of the initial letters or syllables of
the components of a word-group or a compound word. There are two types of
abbreviations:

a) alphabetic (initial) abbreviations
(R.C. — Red Cross; RR — railroad; MTV — Music Television; VCR — vid¬eo-cassette
recorder) are read as a succession of the sounds denoted by the constituent
letters;

b) acronyms (AIDS; UNESCO; TESOL —
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages; ADAPTS —  Air Deliverable
Antipollution Transfer System) are read as a succession of sounds denoted by
the constituent letters, i.e. as if they were ordinary words.

c) graphical is the result of shortening
of a word or a word-group only in written speech. Eg Feb.Ms Mr km

Blending is the pricess of merging parts
of words into one new word-blend. Blend is a word that combines parts of 2
words & includes the letters or& sounds they may have in common as a
connecting element. Eg smo[ke] + [f]og =smog Ox[ford] +  [Cam]bridge =Oxbridge

Clipping (or curtailment) is the process
of cutting off one or several syllables of a word. According to the position of
a clipped part, clippings are of four types:

a) final clipping, or apocope
(sis—sister;sec—secondary, secretary);

b) initial clipping, or aphaeresis
(phone—telephone;Bella—Isabella);

c) initial and final clipping or
fore-and-aft(flu — influenza; Liza — Eliza¬beth);

d) medial clipping, or
syncope(maths—mathematics;comms—communications).

5)Postpositivation is the process of
changing verb stems with the help of postpositives (to come across, to back up,
to kiss off).

6) Reversion (also called back-formation)
is the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from
existing words (through misinterpretation of their structure) (editor -* to
edit; baby-sitter -> to baby-sit; television -> to televise).

It should be noted that back-formation can
be analysed only diachronically, because the present-day speaker may not feel
any difference between the pairs: editor — to edit and actor — to act. Only
diachronical analysis shows that the word edit is derived from the word editor.

7) a) Among the low-productive ways of
word-formation there are the following: sound imitation (also called
onomatopoeia, echoism) — is the formation of words by a more or less exact reproduction
of a sound associated with an object producing this sound (babble, splash,
whip, whisper, mew) and repetition (full or partial) of a root or a stem
(ha-ha, tick-tack, tip-top).

b) sound-interchange — is the gradation of
sounds occupying one and the same place in the sound-form of one and the same
morpheme in various cases of its occurrence (food, n — feeoV, v; speak, v —
speech, n; life, n — live, v; sing, v — song, n) and stress-inter¬change (also
called stress distinction) (‘conduct, n — con’duct, v; ‘present, n — p re’sent,
v; ‘object, n — ob’ject, v; ‘frequent, adj — fre’quent.

2.Synonyms

Lexical units which are classified by the
criterion of similarity are known as synonyms. Synonyms possess almost the same
general meaning, e.g. BIG — LARGE. They both express considerable size but they
are used differently (a large family, but a big man). The most important
feature of synonyms is not what they have in common, but rather the differences
between them, e.g. I CAN’T SAY SHE’S PRETTY, JUST ATTRACTIVE. Thus, synonyms
are a very important means of language. The function of synonyms is to express
the same thing, object or quality, or process in different ways.

The basis of opposition in synonymous
words is a common denotational component. All the other components can vary and
thus form the distinctive features of the synonymic opposition.

The traditional definition of synonyms is:
synonyms are two or more words having the same or nearly the same meaning. This
definition is inaccurate, because:

1) It cannot be applied to polysemantic
words, as they are not synonymous in all their meanings but only in one of
their meanings. The number of synonymic sets of a polysemantic word is as a
rule equal to the number of individual meanings the word possesses.

2) We cannot speak of similarity of
meaning as a whole, as it is only the denotational component that can be
described as similar or identical. E.g. TO KILL — TO MURDER have the same
denotational component ‘deprive sb. of life’, but MURDER also expresses intention
whereas KILL is neutral; TO SELECT — TO CHOOSE differ in their stylistic
reference (the first verb is used in reference to scientific issues, the second
one is neutral). Thus, it is usually a connotational component that makes
synonyms different.

3) Similarity of meanings is very rare
among monosemantic words. Words of the same meaning would adversely affect the
comprehensibility of the language. It is a rule with languages that where there
is one or more words which coincide in meaning and usage, all but one tend to
become redundant.

Synonyms are grouped according to their
denotational and connotational components into ideographic, stylistic and
absolute (full, total).

Ideographic synonyms are words conveying
the same concept but differing in shades of meaning. For instance the verbs
cry-weep-sob-wail-whimper. These verbs mean “to make inarticulate sounds of
grief, unhappiness, or pain”. Cry has the widest use & may be the result of
unhappiness, joy. Cry & weep both imply the shedding of tears, but cry more
strongly imply accompanying sound. In comparison with cry, weep can suggest
stronger emotions. Sob describes crying or a mixture of broken speech &
crying marked by irregular & noisy breathing. Wail indicates long noisy
crying in grief or complaint. Whimper refers to low, broken or repressed cries.

Stylistic s-s are words differing in their
stylistic characteristics, eg sky (neutral) welkin (bookish) head (neutral)
attic (slang).

Absolute s-s are words coinciding in all
their shades of meaning & in all their stylistic characteristics, eg
word-building word-formation.

The sources of synonymy are varied:

1) borrowing from other languages (mostly
Latin and French), e.g. HEARTY — CORDIAL (formal), FINISH — END —  CONCLUDE,
ASK — QUESTION — INTERRO¬GATE (in the last two sets the words are of native —
French — Latin origin respectively);

2) borrowing from dialects and variants of
English, e.g. TUBE —  SUBWAY — UNDERGROUND, CAN — TIN (American — British);

3) synonyms can also result from the
word-building processes of present-day English:

a) shortening (prof, lab, exam);

b) conversion (laugh = laughter);

c) affixation (effectivity =
effectiveness);

d) post-positivation (demand = call for;
to yield = to give in; to postpone = to put off, etc.).

Synonyms make groups and almost in each
group there is a synonymic dominant.

Synonymic dominant is the central term of
a synonymic set possessing the following characteristic reatures: 1)high
frequency of usage 2)broad combinability ie ability to be used in combinations
with various classes of words 3)broad general meaning 4)lack of connotations
5)it may substitute for other s. at least in some context 6)it is often used to
define other s. in dictionary definitions.

In the s. set strange-queer-odd-quaint the
s. dominant is strange.

3. The Semantic Structure of Polysemantic
Words

The ability of words to have more than one
meaning is described as polysemy. Polysemy is characteristic of most words in
many languages, however it is more characteristic of the English language than
of Russian, due to the monosyllabic character of English and the predominance
of root words.

Polysemantic word is a word having more
than one meaning. Ex cinema-a place where you go to see a film, film in
general.

Separate meaning of a polysemantic words
are called lexical semantic variants (LSV). In the word city there are at least
2 LSV:1)a large & important town-Tokyo is the capital city of Japan 2)the
oldest part of London, which is now Britain’s financial center-She works in a
bank in the City.

The semantic structure of a word may also
be considered as a hierarchical sys. i.e. a historical unity of LSV with the
direct nominative m-ng in the center. All other LSV are semantic derivative
ones. They differentiate b/w:

The radial polysemantic relation implies
that all the derived m-ngs are directly related to the nominative (main) ex:
field – field of science, gold field, field of rye, field of war etc.

The chain polysem. relation implies that
the m-ngs are sequentially bound up with each other (ex: bleak (nominative) –
bleak hillside (concrete) – bleak wind – etc.).

Ways of discriminating: 1. synchronic
paradigmatic (ex: break).

2. diachronic (ex: lady: OE – service; MnE
– great lady).

3. stylistical (prospecting; gold field;
mother rock; barren (неплодородный, бесплодный, бездарный))   

1 & 2 are related with the area of
human activity or science or a field of science.

No general or complete scheme of the types
of lexical meaning as elements of a word’s semantic structure has so far been
ac¬cepted by linguists. The following terms have been developed by various
authors:

direct meaning — nominates the referent
without the help of a context, in isolation (arm — a part of a human body);

figurative meaning — when the object is
named and at the same time characterized through its similarity with another
object (the arms of the river, the arm of the law).

Other oppositions are: concrete —
abstract, main/primary —. secondary, central — peripheric, narrow — extended,
general — special and so on. In every case the basis of classification is
differ¬ent but the comparison takes place within the semantic structure of one
word. The meanings are characterized one against the other. As all of these
terms reflect the relationships which exist between different meanings of a
word at the same time, the classification may be called synchronic and
paradigmatic.

The meanings can be classified according
to their genetic characteristics: etymological meaning – the earliest known
meaning; archaic meaning – the meaning superseded (replaced) by a newer one but
still remaining in certain collocations (collocations is a habitual combination
of words which sound natural); obsolete meaning – gone out of use; present day
meaning- the one most frequent in the present day language; original – the
meaning serving as a basis for the derived ones.

If the meanings have stylistic
connotations, the classification is stylistical. First of all, the meanings are
subdivided into stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured. Furthermore,
the second group is further subdivided into colloquial, poetical, scientific,
literary, slang, etc.

Context may be roughly subdivided into
lexical, syntactical and mixed. In lexical one the indication comes from the
neighboring words, if the indication comes from the syntactic pattern the
context is called syntactic.

She made a good cake – cook, prepare, the
semantic or lexical context is relevant, cake is inanimate object

She made a good wife – to become, to turn
out (lexical context is relevant) wife is animate object

She made me cry – to cause (grammatical
context is relevant – complex object).

4.Homonymy and its sources. Different
classifications.

Homonymy is the sameness of form combined
with the difference in meaning. Homonymy is characteristic of English due to
the monosyllabic character of English and analytical character of it. Split of
polysemy takes place when a meaning of a polysemantic word falls

out, and thus new meanings lose the
connection with the semantic structure of the word. This phenomenon is
considered to be one of the sources of homonymy. Sometimes homonymy arises as a
result of accidental coincidence in sound or graphic form of words.

Classifications.

I.         Homophones – units identical in
sound form but different in graphic form and meaning (peace & piece).

II.        Homographs – units identical in
graphic form but different in sound form and meaning (row – a neat line of
people or a noisy quarrel).

III.      Full homonyms – are two or more
words which coincide in all their forms (blow-to send out a strong current of
air,-to produce flowers). Full homonyms – coincide in all grammatical forms
(blow – дуть и цвести – blows, blowing,
blew, blown)

IV.      Partial homonyms – are words
which coincide only in some of their forms & grammatical paradigm coincides
only partially (lie – to have or put one’s body in a resting position on a
horizontal surface with its paradigm lies, lying, lay, lain & to make a
statement one knows to be untrue- lies, lying, lied, lied).

V.        Lexical homonyms – are words
which belong to the same part of speech but differ in lexical meaning (night
–the part of the day when it is dark & when people sleep knight-a man who
has been given a rank of honour; ball- a round object that you hit kick & a
large formal party).

VI.      Lexico-grammatical homonyms – are
words which differ in their lexical & grammatical meanings (rose–a flower
& an increase; sea–the salt water that coverslarge part of the surface of
the earth see-to become aware of sth using your eyes)

VII.     Grammatical homonyms – homonymous
forms in a paradigm of a word, which differ in grammatical meanings (boys –
boy’s – boys’ plaed-past indefinite, past participle).

5. Morphological Structure of English
Words. Classifications of Morphemes

A word consists of morphemes.

A morpheme is one of the fundamental
language units, a minimum sign which is an association of a given meaning with
a given sound pattern. Unlike a word it is not autonomous.

There are two classifications of
morphemes: semantic and structural.

According to their meaning, morphemes are
divided into roots and affixational morphemes. The latter are further
subdivided into 1) affixes proper — prefixes, suffixes; 2) inflectional
morphemes.

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus
of a word.

It remains after the removal of all
functional & derivational affixes & does not admit any further
analysis, eg needless, precook, fire-eater.

The prefix is a derivational morpheme
standing before the root and modifying meaning eg insensitive, ex-minister,
reread.

A suffix is a derivational morpheme
following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech
(actor, washable) or in a different word class within the same part of speech
(kingdom, booklet)

Inflection is a functional affix.
Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are relevant only for the
formation of word-forms, whereas derivational affixes are relevant for building
various types of words. Thus suffixes perform the word-building function (play-
er full fully), while the function of inflection is form-changing (play- s ed
ing).

According to their structure, morphemes
are subdivided into free morphemes, bound morphemes and semi-bound/semi-free
morphemes/semi-affixes.

A free morpheme is a morpheme which
coincides with a word-form of an independently functioning word. Free morphemes
can be found only among roots (so the morpheme girl- in the word girl is a free
morpheme ; fear- in the word fearless).

A bound morpheme is a morpheme which does
not coincide with a separate word-form. Bound morphemes include all affixes
(—less in the word fearless) and some root-morphemes (docu- in the word
document; theor- in the words theory, theoretical).

Semi-bound/semi-free morphemes are
morphemes which stands midway between roots and affixes. A semi-bound morpheme
can be an affix (as the element -worthy in the word trustworthy; the element
mini- in the word mini-skirt) and at the same time — an independent
full-meaning word (the word worthy; the word mini). As semi-affixes come
somewhere in between roots and affixes it is not always easy to say whether an
element retains the status of a root or functions more as an affixational
morpheme.

Morphemic and Word-Formation Analyses.

There are two levels of approach to the
study of word-structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of
derivational (or word-formation) analysis.

Morphemic analysis is the analysis limited
to stating the number and the types of morphemes that make up a word. For
example, the word girlishness may be analyzed into three morphemes: the root
girl- and two suffixes -ish and -ness. The morphemic analysis establishes the
morphemes that make up a word, regardless of their role in the formation of
this or that word.

The structural word-formation analysis
studies the structural patterns or rules on which words are built. The results
of the morphemic analysis and the word-formation analysis may coincide. For
instance, in the words bookish and childish there are two morphemes: the root
book- and the suffix -ish, the root child- and the suffix -ish respectively
(the morphemic analysis), both are formed by suffixation (the word-formation
analysis). But there are a lot of other cases when the results of the analyses
do not coincide. For example, from the point of view of the morphemic analysis
there is no difference between the structures of interchange, n and interview,
v (inter-change; inter-view). But from the point of view of the word-formation
pattern they are fundamentally different. The first word is formed by
prefixation, the second — by conversion.

Pseudo-morpheme is a m. which has a
differential meaning and a distributional meaning but does not possess any
lexical or functional meaning. For instance in the word retain detain contain
or receive deceive conceive the cluster re de con & tain ceive have no
lexical meaning.

Unique root is also a p-m. since it has no
lexical meaning but it carries a differential meaning & a distributional
meaning. The difference bw an ordinary p-m. & a u r lies in the following;
1) a u r doesn’t occur in other words 2) in a word containing a u r other m.
display a more or less clear lexical meaning. For ex in the word hamlet  ham is
a u r because 1 of M E &has no lexical meaning.

Combining form is a bound form which
shouldn’t be confused with an affix. A c.f. can be distinguished from an af.
historically by the fact that it is always borrowed from another lang. in which
it existed as a free form or also as a c.f.eg policlinic television.

ИСТОРИЯ АЯ

1.     
THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANALYTICAL verb-FORMS in English.

In OE there were only 4 grammatical
categories. They are the Tense (Present & Preterit), the Mood, Person and
Number. All of them were synthetic. But during the MEP some other categories
which were mainly analytical appeared. One of the first to develop was the category
of time correlation. In OE there were many constructions with the verb «to
have» in its main meaning +an object +an attribute, which referred to the
object (to have something done). Later this construction developed into the
Perfect Form. We see it when Participle II lost its agreement with the object
and when later the object took the position after the Participle. This process
was going in the middle of the MEP => «to have done something».

The Continuous
forms developed in the same way. From a free form combination to a
morphological form. In the beginning it was a compound nominal predicate with
the verb «to be» as a link-verb and Participle I as a predicative. And
originally it didn’t express a process, it meant only permanent characteristic
as a Present indefinite now. The Continuous form acquired its modern meaning
much later in the 16th century, even after Shakespeare. The process
which took place was the same as with the Perfect form: originally the
Participle agreed with the subject, but then it lost its category of agreement
and became a part of the Continuous form.

The same process took
place with the Passive which developed from a free word combination to a fixed
morphological form. Originally it was a compound nominal predicate with the
verb «to be» + Participle II as a predicative. Gradually the Participle lost
its agreement with the subject of the sentence.

As we know the
Future Tense Form was not represented in the OE and developed only during the
MEP. It developed from a combination which was a compound verbal modal
predicate with the verb «shall» and «will». But even in the time of Shakespeare
this combination could be still to either as a modal predicate or as a Future
form.

The Perfect
Continuous Form was one of last to appear. It appeared at the beginning of the
NEP. And the last to appear was the Continuous form of the Passive which began
developing only in the 19th century.

In OE we may find
passive infinitive, though no passive forms far finite forms may be found.
Other analytical non-finite forms developed during the MEP, but only after
corresponding analytical forms of finite forms had developed.

The gerund was
also one of the last to appear. There are several theories concerning the
development of the Gerund and the most current of them is that it developed as
a mixture of Participle I and the verbal noun with the preposition «on» in the
function of the predicative (He was on hunting. OE).

3. Quantitative changes of vowels in
Middle English.

VOWELS

    
In the ME period a great change affected the entire system of vowel phonemes.

OE had
both short and long vowel phonemes, and each of these could occur in any
phonetic environment, that is, they were abso­lutely independent phonemic
units.

As a
result of important changes coming into the vowel system in the 10th—12th
centuries, the  ME vowel system was basically dif­ferent. While, in OE,
quantity (that is length/shortness) was a dis­tinctive phonemic feature, in ME
(by the 13th century) this is no longer so. Quantity of vowels becomes
dependent on their environment — to be exact, on what follows. With a few
exceptions the situation in ME is briefly this: in some phonetic environments
only short vowels can appear, while in other phonetic environments only long
vowels can appear. The quantity (length/ shortness) of a vowel is with those
few exceptions still to be con­sidered unambiguously predetermined by the
environment. Thus quantity ceases being a phonemically relevant feature and
becomes a merely phonetic peculiarity of a vowel sound.

Now we
will consider the various items of this development, which come under separate
headings.

Shortening
and Lengthening of Vowels

SHORTENING

A long
vowel occurring before two consonants is shortened. Compare the following
examples:
.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                                                      

           
OE                                 ME

cepan     
(Infinitive)    ‘keep’       kepen

cepte     
(Past Tense)   ‘kept’     kepte

The
vowels are shortened before two consonants, but remain long in other
environments.

However,
long vowels remain long before the «lengthening» con­sonant groups ld,
nd, mb, Т.е. those consisting of two voiced conso­nants articulated by the
same organ of speech, e.g.:

wenan 
(Infinitive)                         ‘think’   wenen

wende 
(Past Tense)                                  wende

heran  
(Infinitive)                          ‘hear’    hiren

herde  
(Past Tense)                                   herde

Long
consonants also remained long before such consonant clusters as belonged to the
following syllable. This mainly affects the group -st as in the words

OE                            
          ME

laesta
‘least’                         lest

eastan
‘from the East’          esten

masta
‘largest’                     most, mast

From
such forms as these the long vowel could also penetrate into forms with final —st:
mest, mast, lest, last.

On the
other hand, in the words breost > brest ‘breast’, blsæst > 
blast ‘blast’, fyst > fist, dūst > dust the
vowel was shortened, that is, the form without ending took the upper hand.

A long
vowel is also shortened before one consonant in some three-syllable words: lāferce
> laferce > larke ‘lark’, hali3dæ3> haliday
‘holiday’, sūÞerne > suÞerne ‘southern’.

LENGTHENING

 In
the 13th century short vowels were lengthened in open syllables. This was
another item of the development which deprived quantity (length/shortness) of
its status as a phonemic feature.

Lengthening
affected the short vowels a, e, o. In the Northern dialects it started in the
12th century, an_d in the 13th it spread all over England. The long vowels ē
and ō which resulted from this change were open, vowels; thus, the ē
from e coincided with ē from æ and ea; the Q 
from о with ō from ā (in
Midland and Southern dialects). For example: cāru>care ‘care’, talu>tāle
‘tale’.

The
narrow vowels i and u remained as a rule unaffected by this
change, and thus the difference between short i and long and also that
between short u and long u retained its quality as a phonemically relevant
feature. In a few words, however, the narrow vowels were also lengthened in
open syllables, and the narrow vowels were widened in the process, thus, i >
ē, u >ō, as in

wikes
> wēkes ‘weeks’. This change mainly occurred in the Northern dialect; it
partly also affected the East Midland dialect.

   In
a number of words the quantity of the vowel was vacil­lating. Sometimes the
vowel would be short in one case form, but long in another, and eventually one
or the other variant would prevail. Thus, in the OE noun hωæl ‘whale’
the nominative singular (without ending) hωæl would yield a ME ωhal with
short a, whereas the nominative plural hωalas would yield a ME ωhāles
with long a. Both the ME plural form whales [weilz] and the ME
singular form whale [weil] are derived from the ME variant with long a; in
other words the form with the long vowel prevailed.

    In
other cases the development was different. E.g. OE heofon ‘heaven’, gen.
sing, heofones yielded ME nom. hēven (with long ē in an open
syllable) and gen. sing, hevnes (with short e). In ME only the
form with the short vowel has been preserved: [hevn], though the spelling heaven
testifies that originally a long vowel was pro­nounced here; if it had been
preserved, the modern pronunciation of the word would be [hi:vn].

    In
some cases both variants survived. Usually they were differen­tiated in
meaning. For example, OE затеп
‘amusement’, genitive 3amnes, yielded ME gāme,
gamne, ME game [geim] and gammon ‘nonsense’; OE sceadu
‘shade», genitive sceadwe, ME shāde, shadωe yielded ME shade
and shadow with a differentiation of meaning; OE mæd ‘meadow’,
genitive mædwe, ME mēde, medwe yielded ME mead [mi:d]
(poetical) and meadow [‘medou].

    In
some words there are variants in the vowel quantity depend­ing on phonetic
environment. As we have seen, in Late OE short vowels were lengthened before
the clusters nd, Id, mb, but if the cluster was followed by another
consonant there was no length­ening. Similarly, the substantive cild ‘child’
had its vowel length­ened and has yielded ME [tſaild], but its plural form cildru
preserved its [ı] short and has yielded ME children [‘tſildrən].
Compare also hind, behind with [ai] and hindrance with short [ı].
The preservation of short i in the substantive wind may be due to
the fact that this word was often used as a component of compounds, as in windmill
(compare the verb wind [waind]).

  
Variants having a short vowel are also found in some other words in ME, e.g. in
OE meni3eo, ME many (as in a great many); rædi3, ræd3e, ME
ready [‘redi].

Monophthongization
of OE Diphthongs

   The
important of the Early Middle English qualitative changes was the loss of OE
diphthongs, which affected the entire system of vowels. We should recall that
the OE language had a system of diphthongs consisting of the long [ēa],
[ēo/īo], [īe] – all falling diphthongs with a closer nucleus and a more open
glide – and the short diphthongs of the same quality [ea], [eo/io], [ie].

 
Towards the end of the OE period all the OE diphthongs began to merge with
monophthongs: OE [īe] and [ie] mingled with OE [y:] and [y] already in Late
West Saxon, and developed together with the two latter vowels; the long OE
diphthongs [ēa] coalesced with the long OE [æ:] and did not differ from it in
later modifications; the short [ea] merged with [æ] and shared its further
development; and the dialectal variants [ēo/īo] and [eo/io] fell together with
the monophthongs [e:/i:], [e] and [i] respectively.

 As
the result of these processes the vowel system lost the two sets of OE
diphthongs. In the meantime a new set of diphthongs developed from combinations
of vowels with consonants, due to the vocalization of the latter.

Levelling
of Unstressed Vowels

 An
important change characteristic of the ME period af­fected the unstressed
vowels. All unstressed vowels were as a rule weakened and reduced to a neutral
vowel something like [ə], which was denoted by the letter e.
Thus, for example, the infinitive suffix -an was reduced to —en,
as in bindan > bīnden, tellan > tellen, etc.; in a
similar way, sunu>sune, sone ‘son’ , the nominative plural ending -as
became —es, as in stānas > stQnes, and the like.
This.weakening of unstressed vowels is closely connected with developments in
declension and conjugation.

From
the phonemic viewpoint this change indicates a decided sep­aration of the
unstressed vowel phoneme system from that of the stressed vowels. Whereas the
stressed position allows a distinction of many vowel phonemes, the number of
unstressed vowel phonemes is very greatly reduced. Thus, while in OE there was
no difference between the number of vowel phonemes in stressed and in
unstressed syllables, in ME there arises a very significant difference in this
respect, and the way is paved for the state of things typical of ME.

  4.
The unification of the ways of building the plural forms of nouns in the
history of English.

In Old
English there were two number: the singular and the plural. The singular and
the plural in Old English were well distinguished by formal differences in most
cases and genders, there being but a small number of homonymous forms.   

    Most
case-forms were distinguished through the endings; sometimes in addition to or
instead of the endings sound alternations were used;

Special
note should be made of the Plural endings -as (a-stems, Masculine,
Nominative and Accusative) and the endings -es   (a-stem, Masculine,
Genit., Singul.). Already in OE they began to be added to nouns, originally
belonging to other declensions. It is noteworthy that unlike Masculine nouns,
the Neuter a-stems did not take –as in the Plural: some of them
took –u, while others had dropped the endings in pre-written OE so that
their form did not change for the plural.

  Of
special interest is the group of root-stems which employed a vowel interchange
as a regular means of form-building. Sound alternations can occasionally be
found in other stems too: thus nouns ending in fricatives had a regular
alternation between a voiced and a voiceless consonant depending on whether it
stood at the end of the word or was followed by a vowel.

Compare:
OE ωulƒ [f] – Nominative Sing. And ωulƒas, ωulƒa
[v] – Nomin. and Gen. Plural (a-stems,Mascul.) NE ωolf –
ωolfes; The front vowel æ alternared with a before a back
vowel in the endings, e.g. OE dæ3 Nomin. Sing. – da3as Nomin.
Plur, NE day – days. Those were occasional alternations that arose in
specific phonetic conditions that did not affect the general means employed in
the paradigm.

  In
the root-stems the use of vowel alternations, though originally due to phonetic
causes too, became a new means of form-building. The interchange arose due to
palatal mutation in the form which had -i- in the ending. In
contrast to other stems the endings was added directly to the root (there being
no stem-suffix) and the root-vowel was palatalized. The pre-written *fōtiz
(nomin. plur.) and *fōti (dat. Sing.) became *fēand  and *fēti
and were both shortened to fēt when the ending was dropped. After the loss
of the endings the difference in the root-vowel turned out to be the only
distinguishing feature between the forms fōt and fēt..

 There
were only eight endings employed in the noun paradigms: -a, -e, -u, -an,
-es, -um (and the zero inflection).

Some endings
were assotiated with one case-form only: thus –es was the ending of
Masculine a-stems in the Genitive Singular.

Some
endings were alike in all the paradigms: -a and -um in the
Genitive and Dative Plural. In all the declensions the form of the Nominative
Plural coincided with that of the Accusative Plural; in some paradigms, through
not all the Nominative and Accusative forms in the Singular were alike too.                                                                                               
                                                                      

The
category of n u m b e r proved to be the most stable of the grammatical
categories of the noun. The noun has preserved the dis­tinction of two numbers
(in countable nouns) through all the histori­cal periods. Only the formal means
of building up plural forms have changed.

 Declension
Types in Middle English Development of More Uniform Markers for Case and
Number

The
development of more universal means of building case and number forms is linked
up with the rearrangement and break up of the Old English declension system.
Already in Old English the po­sition of different types of declension in the
noun paradigm was not the same: certain types, namely a-stems, 0-stems and n-stems
com­prised larger numbers of nouns and were more influential than the other
types: their endings spread to other types of nouns.

In
Middle English the declension system was gradually rearranged and became more
regular and uniform. In the literary Middle English language of the 14th
century the bulk of the nouns took the ending -es in the plural. The Genitive
case of all nouns was marked by -es, both in the singular and in the plural.

The
plural forms of nouns in Middle English and — to a lesser degree — in New
English have retained traces of the Old English morphological division: stems
or types of declension.

As
mentioned above, the Middle English plural ending -es [əs] goes back to
the plural ending -as of a-stems. In Early New English it
underwent a number of phonetic changes due to the voicing of fricatives and the
loss of [ə] in unstressed final syllables. Consider the development of the
plural ending in Early New English after various sounds:

    
ME ωolυes [΄wulvəs] > [‘wulvəz] > [wulvz], NE ωolυes (after
a voiced consonant or a vowel)

    
ME bookes [‘bo : kəs] > [‘bu : kəz] > [buks], NE books (after
a voiceless consonant)

    
ME dishes [diſəs] > [‘diſaz] > [‘diſiz], NE dishes (after
[J], [s], etc.)

The
Middle English plural ending -en, as in ME horsen and oxen, goes
back to the Old English plural ending -an of n-stems. Later it
has been preserved only in NE oxen, brethren and children, although
the two latter words originally belonged to other consonantal stems and
acquired —en by analogy of former n-stems in Early Middle
English.

The
formation of the plural by means of a root vowel alternation, as in ME and NE foot,
feet comes from the former root-stems (OE fōt, fēt); in Middle
English and New English the number of words which built their plural in this
way has been reduced, so that in pres­ent-day English only a few nouns belong
to this group.

We may also mention that some
Middle English nouns, such as ME sheep, deer, hors, thing did not change
for the plural, which is accounted for by their origin: they came from the
Neuter a-stems with a long root-syllable, which added no plural ending
in Old Eng­lish; the number of such words in Modern English has been reduced to
three — deer, sheep and swine.

5. The development of the English
vocabulary: Germanic, Scandinavian, French and Latin substrata.

COMPOSITION
OF OE VOCABULARY

The OE
vocabulary is mainly homogeneous. Loan-words are an insignificant part of it.
Among native words we can distinguish the following
layers:                                                                                                               
                                                                                                                              

1.Common
Indo-European words, which were inherited from the Indo-European  parent
language. For example:

(a)
substantives: fæder ‘father’, mōdor ‘mother’, nama ‘name’,
fōt  ‘foot’.

(b)
adjectives: neoωe ‘newr,  riht ‘right’, lon3 ‘long’.

(c)
verbs: sittan ‘sit’, lic3an ‘lie’, beran ‘bear’, teran ‘tear’.

2.
Common Germanic words.

(a)
substantives: eorÞe ‘earth’, land ‘land’, sæ ‘sea’, heall ‘hall’, sand
‘sand’, earm ‘arm’.

(b)
adjectives: earm ‘poor’, 3rene ‘green’.

(c)
verbs: findan ‘find’, sin3an ‘sing’, steorfan ‘die’.

3.  Specifically
English words, not found in any other languages. These are very few.  The verb clipian
‘call’ is one of  them.

WAYS
OF DEVELOPING THE VOCABULARY

The OE
vocabulary, like that of any other languages, develops in two ways: (1) by
forming new words from elements existing in the language  (2) by taking over
words from other languages, In OE the first of these is by far the more
important.

Word-building

 There
are three main types of word-building in OE:

1.
Morphological word-building, that is, creating new words by means of
morphological elements.

2.
Syntactical word-building, that is, building new words from syntactical groups.

3.
Semantic word-building, that is building new words by using existing words in
new meanings.

Morphological

Morphological
word-building is subdivided into two types: affixation and composition. The
difference between the two types, as we» shall see, is not an absolute
one.

AFFIXATION

Suffixes

Suffixes
play a rather important part in OE. We shall con­sider OE suffixes, grouping
them according to the parts of speech which they derive.

—         
substantive suffixes

—         
adjective suffixes

—         
verb suffixes

—         
prefixes

 Composition 

Loan-Words       
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Semantic
Groups of Latin and Greek Borrowings

  
Abstract notions: aspiration, conception, communication, dexterity, expectation,
idea, illusion, liberation, memory, ne­cessity, pallor, ponderosity,
supposition.

  
Scientific terms: atmosphere, acid, apparatus, appendix, axis, antenna, energy,
fungus, formula, focus, hereditary, radius,
vacu­um, virus.

  
Latin borrowings were adopted through literature and at first were of a purely
learned or literary character. But in  the course of time many of them lost
their bookish character and passed into  the ordinary vocabulary, e. g, add,
animal, correct, connect, fact, ex­pect,  discuss, obstinate, picture, strict,
student, suggest, timid, vole, etc.                                                                                                                                                                  
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                

  So
great was the Latin influence during the Renaissance that quite a number of
earlier French borrowings were reshaped into closer re­semblance with their
Latin originals. Thus, ME avocat, aventure and avis were accurate
renderings of the French words from which they were taken (OFr. avocal,
aventure,avis}. But under the Latin influenced was inserted in these words,
at first only in spelling which lat­er affected the pronunciation: NE advocate,
adventure, advice (compare Lat. advocatus, adventura, *advisum < ad
— visum). Likewise ME parfit represents OFr. parfit, but
later c was inserted in the word by analogy with the Latin original: NE perfect
(Lat. perfectun), thus changing both the spelling and the
pronunciation.

   In
other words only the spelling was affected, e. g. ME dette, doute, NE debt,
doubt were respelled to conform to their Latin ances­tors (compare OFr. dette,
doute and Lat. debitum, dubitum). Likewise ME receit, NE receipt
and ME faucon, NE falcon were respelled in imitation of the
Latin words (compare OFr. receite, faucon and Lat. recepta,
falcōnem}. The b, p and 1 have never been pronounced in these
Words.

   Greek
loan-words that entered the English vocabulary in the 16th and 17th
centuries were not as numerous as Latin borrowings. They were mostly scientific
terms, e. g. analysis, catastrophe, cos­mos; comedy, dialogue, epilogue,
episode, emphasis, elegy, lexicon, myth, phrase, petal, physics, philology,
gymnastics, topic.

 
After the Renaissance period scholars continued to draw upon Latin and Greek to
mark new advances made in science and especially in engineering. Hundreds of
chemical, biological, medical and tech­nical terms were borrowed from Latin and
Greek in the 18th and 19th centuries, e. g.

Chemistry:
creosol (Gr.); acetic, caustic, desiccator, silica, valency (Lat.).

Physics:
anode, cathode, electron, phase (Gr.); equilibrium, frequency, laminar,
nucleus, quantum, transformation (Lat.).

Medicine:
diagnosis, prophylaxis, psychiatry, streptomycin (Gr.); appendicitis, bacillus,
bronchitis, ponycillin (Lat.).

Other
technical  terms: commutator, diode, triode (Gr.); centrifugal,   projector,
radiator, torpedo (Lat.).

Semantic
Groups of French Borrowings

 Government: govern,
government, assembly, council, office, parliament,
power.                                                                                                                                                                                              
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             

Law:
judge, justice, advocate, accuse, jury, crime, damage, de­fendant, evidence,
fine, legacy, sentence.

Military
terms: army. arms, battle, banner, enemy, captain, navy, officer,
peace, seige,
soldier.                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Church:
abbey, Bible, clergy, confession, preach, prayer, parish, paradise, religion,
sermon.

Architecture:
castle, cellar, chimney, garret, pillar, porch.

Arts
and Literature: art, colour, copy, figure, image, music, ornament, paint,
preface,
volume.                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
                                     

Trades: 
barber, butcher, carpenter, draper, grocer, tailor.

Grades
of aristocracy: baron, count, countess, duke, duchess, page, marquis,
prince.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
               

Pastimes:
cards, chess, the chase, conversation, dice, dance, leasure,
recreation.                                                                                                                                                             
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

Furniture
and household articles: basin, chair, couch, curtain, cushion,
lamp, table, wardrobe, plate.

Miscellaneous:
advice, air, arrive, common, courteous, cry, dinner, deceive, easy, enjoy,
enter, face, flower, honest, honour, hour, large, lesson, letter, manner,
necessary, nice, noble, occupy, pale, pay, people, proof, river, scissors,
search, supper, treasure.

Vocabulary developed in the ME period both
by internal processes and by borrowing words and word-building morphemes from
other languages.

 In the sphere of internal development we
may such facts as deriving new words by means of affixation and development of
meaning in accordance with developments in social life: e.g. the OE substantive
chiht, which meant ‘boy’, ‘servant’, acquired in ME the meaning
‘knight’; the OE verb sellan ‘give’ had its meaning narrowed to ‘sell’,
that is ‘give for money’, in ME.

ТЕОРФОНЕТИКА АЯ

1. Segmental phonetics and
phonology: English vowels

The classification of English vowel sounds
There are two major classes of sounds traditionally distinguished by
phoneticians in any language. They are termed consonants and vowels. The
distinction is based mainly on auditory effect. Consonants are known to have
voice and noise combined, while vowels are sounds consisting of voice only.
From the articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech
organs. In case of vowels no obstruction is made. In case of consonants various
obstructions are made. So consonants are characterized by so-called close
articulation, that is by a complete, partial or intermittent blockage of the
air-passage by an organ or organs. The closure is formed in such a way that the
air-stream is blocked or hindered or otherwise gives rise to audible friction.
As a result consonants are sounds which have noise as their indispensable and
most defining characteristic.


vowels unlike consonants are produced with no obstruction to the stream of air,
so on the perception level their integral characteristic is naturally tone, not
noise. The most important characteristic of the quality of these vowels is that
they are acoustically stable. They are known to be entirely different from one
another both articulatorily and acoustically.
The quality of a vowel is known to be determined by the size, volume, and shape
of the mouth resonator, which are modified by the movement of active speech
organs, that is the tongue and the lips. Besides, the particular quality of a
vowel can depend on a lot of other articulatory characteristics, such as the
relative stability of the tongue, the position of the lips, physical duration
of the segment, the force of articulation, the degree of tenseness of speech
organs. So vowel quality could be thought of as a bundle of definite
articulatory characteristics which are sometimes intricately interconnected and
interdependent.
The analysis of the articulatory constituents of the quality of vowels suggests
the following criteria termed:  a) stability of articulation;  b) tongue
position;  c) lip position;  d) character of the vowel end;  e) length;  f)
tenseness.
Stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating
organ in the process of the articulation of a vowel. There are two possible
varieties: a) the tongue position is stable; b) it changes, that is the tongue
moves from one position to another. In the first case the articulated vowel is
relatively pure, in the second case a vowel consists of two clearly perceptible
elements. There exists in addition a third variety, an intermediate case, when
the change in the tongue position is fairly weak. So according to this
principle the English vowels are subdivided into:
a) monophthongs,  b) diphthongs,  c) diphthongoids.
Though the interpretation we have just given is an obvious matter for Soviet
phoneticians it does not mean that this way of seeing the situation is
shared-by British phoneticians. A.C.Gimson, for example, distinguishes twenty
vocalic phonemes which are made of vowels and vowel glides. Seven of them are
treated as short phonemes: [i], [e], [u], … and thirteen as long ones: [a:],
[o:] [3:] [i:], [u:], [ei], [3u], [ai], [au]… five of which are considered
relatively pure: [a], [o:] [3:], [i:], [u:]; the rest are referred to long
phonemes with different glides: [ei], [ai], … with a glide to [i]; [3u], [au]
with a glide to [u]…
Diphthongs consist of two elements, the first of which, the nucleus, being
strong and distinct and the second, the glide, being very weak and indistinct.
Another principle of classification is the position of the tongue. The position
of the tongue in the mouth cavity is characterized from two aspects, that is
the horizontal and vertical movement.
According to the horizontal movement there are five classes of English vowels.
They are:
1) front: [i:], [e], [ei], [a],
2) front-retracted: [i],
3) central: [з:]
4) back [D], [o:], [IU:], [a:];
5) back-advanced: [u],
Vertical movement of the tongue:
1) close a) narrow: [i:] [u:];  b) broad: [i], [u].
2) mid a) narrow: [e], [3;] b) broad.
3) open a) narrow: [o:], [o(i)];  b) broad: [bin — bi:n] bin —
been;
Another principle of classification is lip rounding. Three lip positions are
distinguished: spread, neutral and rounded. For the purpose of classification
it is sufficient to distinguish between two lip positions: rounded and
unrounded, or neutral. Any back vowel is produced with rounded lips, the degree
of rounding is different and depends on the height of the raised part of the
tongue; the higher it is raised the more rounded the lips are. So lip rounding
is a phoneme constitutive indispensable feature, because no back vowel ran
exist without it.
Our next point is checkness. This quality depends on the character of the
articulatory transitiojn from a vowel to a consonant. As a result all English
short vowels are checked when stressed. The degree of checkness may vary and
depends on the following consonant. Before fortis voiceless consonant it is
more perceptible than before a lenis voiced consonant or sonorant. All long
vowels are free.
Another articulatory characteristic of English vowels is their length or
quantity. The monophthongs are divided into two varieties according to their
length:
a) short vowels: [i], [e], [u],
b) long vowels: [i:], [a:], [o:], [3:], [u:].
Vowel like any sound has physical duration — time which is required for its
production (articulation). When sounds are used in connected speech they cannot
help being influenced by one another. Duration is one of the characteristics of
a vowel which is modified by and depends on the following factors:
1) its own length,  2) the accent of the syllable in which it occurs,   3)
phonetic context,  4) the position of the sound in a syllable,  5) the position
in a rhythmic structure,  6) the position in a tone group,  7) the position in
a phrase,  8) the position in an utterance,  9) the tempo of the whole
utterance,  10) the type of pronunciation,  11) the style of pronunciation.
There is one more articulatory characteristic — tenseness. It characterizes
the state of the organs of speech at the moment of production of a vowel.
Historically long vowels are tense while historically short vowels are lax.

2. Segmental phonetics and
phonology: English consonants

The classification of English
consonant sounds
There are two major classes of sounds traditionally distinguished by
phoneticians in any language. They are termed consonants and vowels. The distinction
is based mainly on auditory effect. Consonants are known to have voice and
noise combined, while vowels are sounds consisting of voice only. From the
articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech organs.
In case of vowels no obstruction is made. In case of consonants various
obstructions are made. So consonants are characterized by so-called close
articulation, that is by a complete, partial or intermittent blockage of the
air-passage by an organ or organs. The closure is formed in such a way that the
air-stream is blocked or hindered or otherwise gives rise to audible friction.
As a result consonants are sounds which have noise as their indispensable and
most defining characteristic.
On the articulatory level each consonant may be identified by stating two
general facts about it:
1) what sort of articulatory posture it is formed by;
2) whereabout in the mouth (or pharynx) it is produced.
Besides these major characteristics the particular quality of a consonant may
depend on a lot of other factors, that is by what articulatory organ (or
organs) an obstruction is made, how vocal cords work at the moment of
production, what cavity is used as a resonator, what is the force of
articulatory effect and many others.
According to V.A.Vassilyev primary importance should be given to the type of
obstruction and the manner of production of noise. On this ground he
distinguishes two large classes of consonants:
a) occlusive, in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed;
b) constrictive, in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is
formed.
The phonological relevance of this feature could be exemplied in the following
oppositions:
[ti:] – [si:] – tea – sea (occlusive – constructive)
[si:d] – [si:z] – seed – seas (occlusive – constructive)
[pul] – [ful] – pull – full (occlusive – constructive)
[bзut] – [vзut] – boat – vote (occlusive –
constructive)
Each of two classes is subdivided into noise consonants and sonorants. The
division is based on the factor of prevailing either noise or tone component in
the auditory characteristic of a sound. In their turn noise consonants are
divided into plosive consonants (or stops) and affricates.
Another point of is that the first and basic principle of classification should
be the degree noise. Such consideration leads to dividing English consonants
into two general kinds:
A — noise consonants
B — sonorants
in production of sonorants the air passage between the two organs of speech is
fairly wide, that is much wider than in the production of noise consonants. As
a result, the auditory effect is tone, not noise — [r], [j], [w], for example.
They are also characterized by sharply defined formant structure and the total
energy of most of them is very high.
The phonological relevance of the degree of noise could be proved by the
following oppositions:
[beik] — [meik] bake — make (noise consonant — sonorant)
[vi:l – [wi:l] veal — wheel (noise consonant — sonorant)
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against
the point of articulation. According to this principle the English consonants
are classed into:
1) labial, 2) lingual, 3) glottal.
The class of labial consonants is subdivided into: a) bilabial; b)
labio-dental; and among the class of lingual consonants three subclasses are
distinguished; they are: a) forelingual, b) mediolngual and c) backlingual.
[wai] — [lai] why — lie (bilabial — forelingual)
[weil] — [jeil] weil — yale (bilabial — mediolingual)
[pik] — [kik] pick — kick (bilabial — backlingual)
[les] — [jes] less — yes (forelingual .— mediolingual)
[dei] — [gei] day — gay (forelingual — backlingual)
[sai] — [hai] sigh — high (forelingual — glottal)
[fi:t] — [si:t] feet — seat (labio-dental — forelingual)
Another sound property is voiced — voiceless characteristic which depends on
the work of the vocal cords. [p, b], [t, d], [k, g], [s, z], [f, v], … All
voiced consonants are weak (lenis) and all voiceless consonants are strong
(fortis).
Thus it may be said that the oppositions [p — b], [t — d], [k — g], [f — v], [s
— z], [f — 3], [tf — dj] are primarily based on energy difference, that is on
fortis — lenis articulation, which are their phonologically relevant features.
It is for this reason that such characteristics as voiceless — voiced have
given place to «fortis» — «lenis» terms.
There is one more articulatory characteristic which is usually included into
the set of principles on the basis of which the English consonants are
classified, that is the position of the soft palate. According to this
principle consonants can be oral and nasal. There are relatively few
consonantal types in English which require the lowered position of the soft
palate. They are the nasal occlusive sonorants [m], [n] … They differ from oral
plosives in that the soft palate is lowered allowing the escape of air into the
nasal cavity.

3. Segmental &
suprasegmental phonetics & phonology. Syllabic system of English &
Russian. Syllable formation & syllable division. Functions of syllable.

The
syllable as a unit is difficult to define, though native
speakers of a language are usually able to state how many syllables there are
in a particular word.

According
to J. Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech sound, forming a single
uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly recognized
subdivision of a word. The syllable can be analysed from the acoustic and
auditory, articulatory and functional points of view. The syllable can be
viewed in connec­tion with its graphic representation.

Acoustically
and auditorily the syllable is characterized by the force of utterance, or
accent, pitch of the voice, sonority and length, that is by prosodic features.

Auditorily the syllable
is the smallest unit of perception: the listener identifies the whole of the
syllabic and only after that the sounds con­tained.

The
articulatory energy which constitutes the syllabic results from the combined
action of the power, vibrator, resonator and obstructor mech­anisms.

Phonologically the
syllable is regarded and defined in terms of its structural and functional
properties.

Syllables
in writing are called syllabographs and are closely connect­ed with the
morphemic structure of words.

A
syllable can be formed by a vowel: (V) in English, (Г) in
Russian; by a vowel and a consonant: (VC) in English, (ГС) in
Russian; by a consonant and a sonorant (CS).

Г, V —
types of syllable called uncovered open,

ГС, VC —
types of syllable called uncovered closed,

СГС, CVC
— types of syllable called covered closed,

СГ, CV —
types of syllable called covered open.

Similar
syllabic structures in English and Russian are:

English                        
Russian

V               
En                       Г                
и

CVC          
pit                        СГС           
пол

С
VCC        lasped               СГССС      
текст

CV            
dew                      СГ             
но

VC             
eat                        ГС             
ад

The
sonorants /w, r, j/, SVC structural type, function as consonants, because they
occur only before vowels: e.g. /wið, rait, jes/.

Syllable-forming
sonorants in the combinations of the CS type are terminal /m,n,1/.#  earthen       
channel       prism      equal

able           
angel           season     camel

The
distribution of consonants in the syllables of the CSC type is characterized by
the following features: initial consonants may be repre­sented by /p, b, t, d,
k, g, f, v…, n/; the peak sonorants may be represented by /n, m, 1/;
final consonants are repre­sented by /t, d, s, z, Ө/. E.g.

opens         
vacant             goggles        ovens          patient

The
distribution of consonants in the syllables of the CSCC type is  characterized
by the following features: the initial consonant may be rep­resented by /p, d,
t, t∫, … r/. The peak of syllable is repre­sented by the sonorants /n, 1/, they
are immediately followed by /t, d, s/; final consonants are represented
by It, s, z/. # innocents agents patents tangents parents

Russian
terminal sonorants do not form syllables with consonants, which precede them.
However in some special cases: for stylistic pur­poses, or for the sake of
rhythm, they may become syllabic; e. g. ру—бль, во—пль, ви—хрь, лю—стр

Final
clusters in English are much more complex than initial ones. They express different
grammatical meanings: plurality, tense, number, e.g. texts, mixed, glimpsed.

The
structure of the Russian syllable is characterized by more com­plex and
numerous initial clusters, they represent grammatical prefixes, e.g. вскрикнуть, всплакнуть, взрыв, кстати.

Syllables
of the initial CC type constitute more than 50 combinations in English (except
affricates and double consonants). Syllables of the initial CC type in Russian
constitute 236 combinations (affricates and double consonants including), e.g. speak,
вчера.

Syllables
of the initial CCC type constitute 14 combinations in En­glish and 97 in
Russian, e.g. street, вскинуть.

A
number of combinations of the initial CCCC type constitute sylla­bles only in
Russian, there are no similar combinations in English, e.g. всплакнуть, взгляд, вздрогнуть.

The
clusters /mh, sr, sf, fs, hr, stl/ never occur initially in English, compare
with the Russian: лоси, сразу, сшить, всё, хруст, стлать.

The
clusters /gr, str/ can occur only initially, /tn, dn, stl/ occur only finally,
compare with the Russian: дни, стлать. The
cluster (тн) does not occur in Russian finally or initially.

In
Russian СГ structural types of syllables are more common than ГС type.
СГ syllabic types constitute more than half of all the structural
types in Russian. СГ together with ССГ types
constitute 85%. In the Russian texts open syllables occur 3 times more often
than closed ones. The most frequent pattern in English is CVC.

English
VC, CVC structures are much more common than the Rus­sian СГ
structural type. СГ prevalence in the Russian syllabic structure results in the
appearance of the vocalic element of /ъ, ь/ type
inside or before the CC clusters.

They
most commonly occur in /гд, дг/combinations,
e.g. «игде«, «отъ—гул«.

Similar
clusters in English are pronounced with the loss of plosion, e.g. good day,
that cat.

THEORIES
OF SYLLABLE FORMATION AND SYLLABLE DIVISION

There
are different points of view on syllable formation which are briefly the
following.

1. The
most ancient theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there
are vowels. This theory is primitive and insufficient since it does not take
into consideration consonants which also can form sylla­bles in some languages,
neither does it explain the boundary of syllables,

2. The
expiratory theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there
are expiration pulses. The borderline between the syllables is, according to
this theory, the moment of the weakest expiration. This theory is inconsistent
because it is quite possible to pronounce several syllables in one articulatory
effort or expiration, e.g. seeing /’si:iŋ/.

3. 
The sonority theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there
are peaks of prominence or sonority.

Speech
sounds pronounced with uniform force, length and pitch, dif­fer in inherent
prominence or sonority. For example, when the Russian vowels /а, о, э, у, и/ are
pronounced on one and the same level, their acoustic intensity, or sonority is
different: the strongest is /a/, then go /о, э, у, и/.

Jespersen
established the scale of sonority of sounds, that is, the scale of their
inherent prominence. According to this scale the most so­norous are back vowels
(low, mid, high), then go semi-vowels and sonorants, then — voiced and
voiceless consonants.

Scale
of Sonority

1. low
vowels /а;, э:, о, ж/ 2. mid vowels /e, з:, э, л/ 3.
high vowels /i:, i, u:, u/ 4. semi-vowels /w, j/ 5. sonorants /I, r, m, n, n/ 6.
voiced constrictive consonants /v, z, 3, 6/ 7. voiced plosive consonants /b, d,
g/ 8. voiceless constrictive consonants and affricates /J, tf, cfe, f, s, h, 0/
9. voiceless plosive consonants /p, t, k/

Sounds
are grouped around the most sonorous ones, which form the peaks of sonority in
a syllable. Two points of lower sonority constitute the beginning and the end
of one syllable.

Compare
melt and metal, in the first word /e/ is the most sonorous sound,
the only peak of sonority, it is a one-syllable word. In the word metal there
are two peaks of sonority /e/and /I/, it is a two-syllable word.

In the
word sudden the most sonorous is the vowel /л/,
then goes the nasal sonorant /n/ which forms the second peak of prominence, /s/
and /d/ are sounds of low sonority, they cannot be considered as syllable
forming sounds.

In the
Russian word пятница there
are three peaks of sonority and accordingly three syllables.

The
sonority theory helps to establish the number of syllables in a word, but fails
to explain the mechanism of syllable division because it does not state to
which syllable the weak sound at the boundary of two syllables belongs.

4. The
«arc of loudness» or «arc of articulatory tension» theory
is based on L.V. Shcherba’s statement that the centre of a syllable is the
syllable forming phoneme. Sounds which precede or follow it constitute a chain,
or an arc, which is weak in the beginning and in the end and strong in the
middle.

If a
syllable consists of a vowel, its strength increases in the begin­ning, reaches
the maximum of loudness and then, gradually decreases.

Graphically
it can be represented by an arc of loudness or an arc of articulatory tension

Consonants
within a syllable are char­acterized by different distribution of mus­cular
tension. Shcherba distinguishes the following types of consonants;

finally
strong (initially weak), they occur at the beginning of the syl­lable;

finally
weak (initially strong), they occur at the end of a closed sylla­ble;

double
peaked (combination of two similar sounds): in their articula­tion the
beginning and the end are energetic and the middle is weak. Acoustically they
produce an impression of two consonants: /pen ‘naif/, /’gud ‘dei/.

In
terms of the «arc of loudness» theory there are as many syllables in
a word as there are «arcs of loudness» and the point of syllable
division corresponds to the moment, when the arc of loudness begins or ends,
that is: initially weak consonants begin a syllable, finally weak end it. (Final­ly
strong consonants begin a syllable, initially strong end it.) For exam­ple, the
word mistake consists of two arcs of loudness in which /m/ and / t/ are
finally strong consonants and /s/ and /k/ are finally weak, /s/ consti­tutes
the end of «the arc of loudness», /t/ constitutes the beginning.

In the
word misspell the double peaked /ss/ occurs at the junction of two
syllables. The sound /s/ is strong at both ends and weak in the mid­dle,
phonologically it consists of two successive allophones of the same phoneme in:
m-i-ss-p-e-l.

A
syllable can be defined as a phonetic unit, which is pronounced by one
articulatory effort accompanied by one muscular contraction, which results
acoustically and auditorily in one uninterrupted arc of loudness.

None
of the theories mentioned above arc reliable in the definition of the syllabic
boundary. To define the syllabic boundary it is necessary to analyse the
syllable on two levels: articulatory-auditory (phonetic-pho­nological), to take
into consideration the structural pattern of the sylla­ble.

Different
languages are characterized by different types of their syl­labic structure in
orthography and speech.

In the
Russian language syllables of СГ—СГ type
have their boundary after the vowel: мо—ло—ко, о—ко—ло.

There
are similar cases in English: wor-ker, ar-my, par-ty but /’w3:k-3/,
/’a;m-i/.

In the
Russian words with ГССГ structural type, the place of the syl­labic boundary depends on
the character of CC cluster. If it occurs ini­tially, it may begin a syllable: мрак
— о—мрачать, but Ал—тай, since лт
does not occur initially.

Similar
distributional dependence of the syllabic boundary on the nature of the CC
cluster exists in English. E.g.  speak /spi:k/ — despite /di-‘spait/, sky
/skai/ — escape /i-‘skeip/ but: twice /twais/ — saltwort /’so:lt-w3:t/

There
is a tendency in Russian to begin non-initial syllables with the sound of
minimal sonority: до—жди, ко—тлы, but тан—ки, кол—хоз.

It is
possible to formulate the following rules of syllable division in English: 1.2
— orthography, 3.4 — phonetics.

1.In
affixal words the syllabic boundary coincides with the morpho­logical boundary:
dis-place, be-come.

2.In
words with CVCV structure the syllabic boundary is after the accented vowel:
farmer, city, table.

3.In
words of CVC structure the syllabic boundary is after the intervocal consonant,
which terminates accented syllable: /fa:m-ə/, /’sit-i/.

4.In
words of CVS, VS structure the syllabic boundary is after the intervocal
sonorant: enemy /en-em-i/.

5.Compared
with the Russian СГ acoustic connection, English CVC cluster is close, Russian CP
syllabic cluster is loose, compare: city /siti/ and си—то.

6.English
diphthongs are unisyllabic, they consist of one vowel pho­neme, English
triphthongs are disyllabic, because they consist of two vowel phonemes: science
sai-əns/.

4.
SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY: STRESS

Any
word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We perceive it as
stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress, stress in
connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress is indicated by placing a
stress mark before the stressed syllable: /’/.

Stress
is defined differently by different authors. B. A. Bogoroditsky, for instance,
defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory
and articulatory activity. D.Jones defined stress as the degree of force, which
is accompanied by a strong force of exhala­tion and gives an impression of
loudness. H. Sweet also stated that stress is connected with the force of
breath. Later, however, D. Jones wrote, that «stress or prominence is
effected … by inherent sonority, vowel and consonant length and by
intonation.» A.C. Gimson also admits that a more prominent syllable is
accompanied by pitch changes in the voice, quality and quantity of the accented
sounds.

On the
auditory level a stressed syllable is the part of the word which has a special
prominence. It is «produced by a greater loudness and length,
modifications in the pitch and quality. The physical correlates are: inten­sity,
duration, frequency and the formant structure. All these features can be
analysed on the acoustic level.

Word
stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more sylla­bles in a word,
which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the
voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is
usually a vowel.

In
different languages one of the factors constituting word stress is usually more
significant than the others. According to the most impor­tant feature different
types of word stress are distinguished in different languages.

1) If
special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly
through the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dynamic,
or force stress.

2)  If
special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the
change of pitch, or musical tone, such accent is called musi­cal, or tonic. It
is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean and other orien­tal languages.

3) If
special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through the changes
in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables than
in the unstressed ones, such type of stress is called quanti­tative.

4)  Qualitative
type of stress is achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel
under stress.

English
word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic, but
in fact, the special prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the
En­glish language not only through the increase of intensity, but also through
the changes in the vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the
voice.

Stress
difficulties peculiar to the accentual structure of the English ‘ language are
connected with the vowel special and inherent prominence. In identical
positions the intensity of English vowels is different. The highest in
intensity is /a:/, then go /а:, з:, i:,
u:, ae, d, e, u, i/.

All
English vowels may occur in accented syllables, the only excep­tion is /з/,
which is never stressed. English vowels /1, и, эи/ tend
to occur in unstressed syllables. Syllables with the syllabic /1, m, n/ are
never stressed.

Unstressed
diphthongs may partially lose their glide quality.

Stress
can be characterized as fixed and free. In languages with fixed type of stress
the place of stress is always the same. For example in Czech and Slovak the
stress regularly falls on the first syllable. In Italian, Welsh, Polish it is
on the penultimate syllable.

V.A.
Vassilyev, D. Jones, R. Kingdon consider that there are three degrees of
word-stress in English: primary — strong, secondary — partial, weak — in
unstressed syllables. For example: certification /,s3:tifi’kei∫3n/.

Most
English scientists place the stress marks before the stressed syl­lables and
don’t mark monosyllabic words,

In
spite of the fact that word accent in the English stress system is free, there
are certain factors that determine the place and different de­gree of
word-stress. V. A. Vassilyev describes them as follows:

(1) recessive
tendency, (2) rhythmic tendency, (3) retentive tendency and (4) semantic
factor.

(1)
Recessive tendency results in placing the word-stress on the ini­tial syllable.
It can be of two sub-types: (a) unrestricted recessive accent, which falls on
the first syllable: father /’fa:ðə/ and (b) restricted recessive accent,
which is characterized by placing the word accent on the root of the word if
this word has a prefix, which has lost its meaning: begin /bi’gin/.

(2)
Rhythmic tendency results in alternating stressed and unstressed syllables,
e.g. pronunciation

 (3)
Retentive tendency consists in the retention of the primary accent on the
parent word, e.g. person — personal /’p3:sn — ‘p3:snl/. More
commonly it is retained on the parent word as a secondary accent, e.g. similar
— similarity.

(4)
Semantic factor.

5.Prosody. Rhythmical groups.
Intonation. Components of intonation. Utterance, its intonation structure. The
communicative, deliminatative, expressive & attitudinal function of
intonation.

Intonation
is a complex unity of non-segmental, or prosodic features of speech: 1. melody,
pitch of the voice; 2. sentence stress; 3. temporal characteristics (duration,
tempo, pausation); 4. rhythm; 5. tamber (voice quality).

Intonation
is very important. It organizes a sentence, determines com­municative types of
sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intona­tion groups, gives
prominence lo words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. The two
main functions of intonation are: communicative and expressive.

There
are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is
known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical.

The
first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, G.
Palmer, L. Armstrong, I. Ward, R. Kingdon, J. O’ Connor, A. Gimson and others.
It is traditional and widely used. According to this approach the smallest unit
to which linguistic meaning can be attached is a tone-group (sense-group).
Their theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basic
functional «blocks». They pay much atten­tion to these
«blocks» but not to the way they are connected. Intonation is treated
by them as a layer that is superimposed on the lexi co-grammati­cal structure.
In fact the aim of communication determines the intonation structure, not vice
versa.

The
grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M. Halliday.
The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three
systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with
grammatical categories. Tonality marks the begin­ning and the end of a
tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. Tone is the
third unit in Halliday’s system. Tones can be primary and secondary. They
convey the attitude of the speaker. Halli­day’s theory is based on the
syntactical function of intonation.

The
founder of the American school of intonation is K. Pike. In his book «The
Intonation of American English» he considers «pitch pho­nemes»
and «contours» to be the main units of intonation. He describes
different contours and their meanings, but the word «meaning» stands
apart from communicative function of intonation. A. Antipova in her
«System of English Intonation» characterizes the approach of the Amer­ican
school to the study of intonation system as «mechanical».

MELODY

Speech
melody or pitch of the voice is closely connected with sen­tence stress.
Crystal states that «the only realizations of stress, which are linguistic,
which are capable of creating an effect of relative prominence, of accent, are
those which are effected with the complex help of pitch, quantity and quality
variations. The most important is pitch.»1

Successive
contours of intonation singled out of the speech flow may be defined
differently: sense-groups (semantic approach), breath-groups (extra-linguistic
approach), tone groups (phonological definition)2 into­nation
groups, tone (tonetic) units, pitch and stress patterns. Each tone unit has one
peak of prominence in the form of a nuclear pitch movement and a slight pause
after the nucleus that end the tone unit and is usually shorter than the term
«pause» in pausation system.

The
tone unit is one of the most important units of intonation theory. It contains
one nucleus, which is often referred to as nuclear tone, or peak of prominence.
The interval between the highest and the lowest pitched syllabic is called the
range of a sense-group. The range usually depends on the pitch level: the
higher the pitch, the wider the range. High, medium and low pitch of the voice
is shown on the staves. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable
of the tone-group is called a nuclear tone. It may occur not only in the
nucleus but extend to the tail — terminal tone.

The
inventory of tonal types given by different scholars is different. Sweet
distinguishes 8 tones: — level, ‘ high rising,, — low rising, * high falling, ч low
falling, w compound rising, л
compound falling, ~ rising-falling-rising. Palmer has four basic tones:
falling, high rising, falling-rising, low rising. He also mentions high-falling
and «low level» and describes coordinating tonal sequences f44»
identical tone groups), and subordinating tonal sequences (» ‘»
dissimilar tone groups). Kingdon distinguishes high and low, normal and
emphatic tones and gives rising, falling, falling-rising (divided and
undivided), rising-falling, rising-fall-‘ ing-rising and level tone (the latter
is not nuclear).

Vassilyev
gives ten tone units. He states that tones can be moving and level. Moving
tones can be: simple, complex and compound. They are: Low Fall; High Wide Fall;
High Narrow Fall; Low Rise; High Narrow Rise; High Wide Rise; Rise-Fall;
Fall-Rise; Rise-Fall-Rise. The most common compound tones are: High Fall + High
Fall; High Fall + Low Rise. Level Tones can be pitched at High, Mid and Low
level.

The
basic unit of intonation is an intonation pattern: pitch movements and tempo.
Intonation patterns are actualized in speeh.

Two
main functions of intonation are — constitutive and recognitive,
intonation also serves to distinguish communicative types of sentences and
differentiate functional styles.

Methods
of indicating intonation are different: wedge-like symbols, slaves with dots
and dashes, which correspond to unstressed and stressed syllables within the
voice range, tonetic stress marks, numerical system, etc. The system of staves
is the most vivid, the system of tonetic symbols is the most economical and
vivid, that’s why they are most popular in our textbooks.

The
most important part of the intonation group is the nucleus, which carries
nuclear stress (nuclear tone).

The
falling tones convey completion and finality, they are categoric in character. The
rising tones are incomplete and non-categoric. Of all the level tones mid level
tone is used most frequently. The level tones may express hesitation and
uncertainty.

Attitudinal
function of intonation can be observed in utterances con­sisting of one word
and in utterances consisting of more than a single word. In the latter cases it
is not only that the type of the nucleus is important but also the pitch of the
utterance preceding the nucleus: pre­head and head. The attitudinal function of
different tonal types in state­ments, special and general questions, commands
and interjections is ac­curately and thoroughly described in the
«Intonation of Colloquial En­glish» by J. D. O’Connor and G. F.
Arnold and in other textbooks on phonetics.

SENTENCE
STRESS

Sentence
stress is a greater prominence of words, which are made more or less prominent
in an intonation group. The special prominence of accented words is achieved
through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice
pitch, constituting the nuclear tone.

The
difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of
stress the dominant perceptual component is loudness, in the case of accent it
is pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance correlate with the pitch range
system. Nuclear stress is the strongest — it carries the most important
information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full
stress occurs only in the head of an intonation group, partial stress occurs
also in the prehead and tail. Partial stresses in the prehead are most
frequently of a low variety, high partial stress can oc­cur before a low head.
Words given partial stress do not lose prominen­ce completely, they may retain
the whole quality of their vowels e.g. /artistik/.

In tone-groups
stress may undergo alternations under the influence of rhythm, but there are
some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or unstressed in an
utterance.

Given
below is the list of words that are usually stressed:

Nouns.
Adjectives. Numerals. Interjections. Demonstrative pronouns. Emphatic pronouns.
Possessive pronouns (absolute form). Interrogative pronouns. Indefinite
pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used
as subject). Indefinite negative pronouns: no, none, no one, nobody,
nothing. Indefinite pronouns some, any (expressing qual­ity).
Deferminatives: all, each, every, other, either, both. Proclitics: much,
many, a little, a few. Notional verbs. Auxiliary verbs (negative contract­ed
forms). Two-word prepositions. Two-word conjunctions. Particles: only, also,
too, even, just.

The
words that are usually unstressed:

Personal
pronouns. Reflexive pronouns. Reciprocal pronouns. Rela­tive pronouns.1
Possessive pronouns (conjoint form). Indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone,
something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as ob­ject). Indefinite pronouns
some, any (when expressing quantity). Auxil­iary verbs (affirmative
form). One-word prepositions and conjunctions.

Articles.
Particles: there, to. Modal verbs (contracted forms and general
questions are exceptions).

The
meaning of the verbs may, should, must changes depending on whether they
are stressed or unstressed, e. g. You ‘may go — possibility. You
may’go — permission.

Stresses
in an utterance provide the basis for identification and un­derstanding of the
content, they help to perform constitutive, distinctive and identificatory
function of intonation. These functions are performed jointly with the pitch
component of intonation.

RHYTHM
AND TEMPO

Rhythm
is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is so
typical of an English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English
origin of the speaker even in cases of «correct» pronuncia­tion.

The phenomenon
of rhythm is closely connected with the phonetic nature of stress.

The
units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups or rhythmic
groups. The perception of boundaries between rhythmic groups is associated with
the stressed syllables or peaks of prominence.

Unstressed
syllables have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllables —
enclitics, or to the following stressed syllables — proclitics.

Each
sense-group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same period of
time, unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly: the greater the number
of unstressed syllables, the quicker they are pro­nounced. Proclitics are
pronounced faster than enclitics.

PAUSATION
AND TAMBER

Pausation
is closely connected with the other components of intona­tion. The number and
the length of pauses affect the genera! tempo of speech. A slower tempo makes
the utterance more prominent and more important. It is an additional means of
expressing the speaker’s emo­tions.

Pauses
made between two sentences are obligatory. They are longer than pauses between
sense-groups and are marked by two parallel bars /||/. Pauses made between
sense-groups are shorter than pauses made be­tween sentences. They are marked
/|/.’

Pauses
are usually divided into filled and unfilled, corresponding to voiced and
silent pauses. Pauses are distinguished on the basis of rela­tive length: unit,
double and treble. Their length is relative to the tempo and rhythmicality
norms of an individual. The exception is «end-of-utterance» pause,
which length is controlled by the person who is about to speak.

Another
subdivision of pauses is into breathing and hesitation.

Pauses
play not only segmentative and delimitative functions, they show relations
between utterances and intonation groups, performing a unifying, constitutive
function. They play the semantic and syntactic role, e. g. There was no love
lost between them (they loved each other). There was no love lost
between them (they did not love each other).

Attitudinal
function of pausation can be affected through voiced paus­es, which are used to
signal hesitation, doubt, suspence. Such pauses have the quality of the central
vowels /э, з:/ or /m, 3:m /. They may be used for emphasis, to attach special
importance to the word, which fol­lows it.

The
tamber or the voice quality is a special colouring of the speaker’s voice. It
is used to express various emotions and moods, such as joy, anger, sadness,
indignation, etc.

Tamber
should not be equated with the voice quality only, which is the permanently
present person-identifying background, it is a more gen­eral concept,
applicable to the inherent resonances of any sound. Tamber is studied along the
lines of quality: whisper, breathy, creak, husky, fal­setto, resonant, and
qualification: laugh, giggle, tremulousness, sob, cry.

=>Intonation (or prosody) is a
complicated matter which includes speech melody, tempo, rhythm, sentence stress
and pauses. All these phonetic phenomena constitute the phonetic nature of
intonation. The linguistic functions of intonation are constitutive,
distinctive and recognitive. But the main function is communicative (or
attitudinal). It shows the speaker’s attitude to the object of communication
and to the listeners.    ‘Sit down (-)  Sit down (+)

Intonation structure of English

Pre-head                 
+   Head                 +    Nuclear tone    +   The tail

(pre-stressed part)       (stressed
part)                                    (post-tonic part)

Nuclear tone can
be:

-low-fall     LF – the speaker is tired,
doesn’t want to speak, angry.

-high-fall    HF – he is interested,
involved into the conversation, happy.

-rise-fall     RF – he is categoric. (in R –
normal, in E –rude)

-low-rise    LR – used when innumerating
smth.

-high-rise   HR – greatly interested or
surprised or reasking.

-fall-rise     FR – polite.

-mid. level ML

ТЕОРГРАММАТИКА АЯ

1.     
The
notion of opposition and its definition. Types of oppositions.

Opposition:
any relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and in external
signs, e. g. street / streets; take / took

Oppositional reduction:

— neutralization (Next week we start for
Moscow), i.e. the use of the weak member instead of the strong;

The member of the opposition characterized
by the presence of the differential mark is called “marked”, “strong”, or
“positive” (commonly designated by the symbol +). The other member of the
opposition, characterized by the absence of the differential feature, is called
“unmarked”, “weak”, or “negative” (commonly designated by the symbol -). In the
category of number the strong, marked member is the plural form, because it
possesses a special formal mark (either the productive suffix -(e)s, or other
formal means, such as -en in children, etc.), the weak, unmarked member of the
opposition is the singular form, which possesses no special mark. To stress the
negative marking of the weak member it is also defined in oppositional theory
with “non-”terms: e.g., the singular is referred to as “non-plural”.

Opposition: any relation between two
grammatical forms differing in meaning and in external signs, e. g. street /
streets; take / took

Besides privative oppositions, there are
gradual and equipollent oppositions, which are minor types in morphology. Gradual
oppositions are formed by a series of members which are distinguished not by
the presence or absence of a differential feature, but by the degree of it. A
gradual morphological opposition in English can be identified only in the plane
of content in the category of comparison, cf.: big – bigger — biggest.
Equipollent oppositions are formed by members, which are distinguished by a
number of their own features. An equipollent morphological opposition in
English can be identified in the plane of expression in the paradigms of
suppletive forms, for example, in the correlation of the person and number
forms of the verb be: am – are – is (was – were).

On the basis of various combinations of
common and differential features, several types of oppositions are distinguished.
The prevalent type in English grammar is a binary privative opposition. The
term “binary” means, that the opposition consists of two members, or forms;
besides binary oppositions, there are oppositions, that may include more than
two members (‘ternary’, ‘quaternary’, etc.). The term “privative” means that
the members of the opposition are characterized by the presence/absence of a
certain differential feature, which serves as the formal mark of one of its
members; in the example above, cat – cats, the ending of the plural is its
formal mark. The member of the opposition characterized by the presence of the
differential mark is called “marked”, “strong”, or “positive” (commonly
designated by the symbol +). The other member of the opposition, characterized
by the absence of the differential feature, is called “unmarked”, “weak”, or
“negative” (commonly designated by the symbol -). In the category of number the
strong, marked member is the plural form, because it possesses a special formal
mark (either the productive suffix -(e)s, or other formal means, such as -en in
children, etc.), the weak, unmarked member of the opposition is the singular
form, which possesses no special mark. To stress the negative marking of the
weak member it is also defined in oppositional theory with “non-”terms: e.g.,
the singular is referred to as “non-plural”.

Two types of oppositional reduction can be
distinguished in grammar: neutralization and transposition. Neutralization
takes place when the grammatical form, which is used, loses its own functional
meaning and acquires the meaning of its counter-member; in other words, it
becomes functionally equivalent with its oppositional counter-member. This type
of oppositional reduction is stylistically indifferent (neutral); in most cases
it happens when the weak member of the opposition is used in the meaning of the
strong one, e.g.: The rose is my favourite flower (=Roses are my favourite
flowers) — the singular, the weak member of the number category opposition, is
used instead of the plural, the strong member. Transposition takes place in
cases where one member of the opposition preserves to a certain extent its
original functional meaning alongside the meaning of its counterpart; the two
functional meanings are actually combined. This type of oppositional reduction
is stylistically marked. Because of the combination of meanings and the
additional stylistic colouring created, transposition can be treated as a
grammatical mechanism of figurativeness, or a grammatical metaphor. In most
cases it happens when the strong member of the opposition is used with the
meaning of the weak one. E.g.: the waters of the ocean, the sands of the desert
– the plural, the strong member of the number category opposition, is used
instead of the singular, the weak member.

Grammatical oppositions can be reduced in
some contextual circumstances, when one member of the opposition is used with
the meaning of the other member, or, in other words, substitutes its
counter-member. This phenomenon in the theory of oppositions is treated as
“oppositional reduction” or “oppositional substitution”.

2.     
The
verb as a part of speech and its main characteristic features. Verb:
grammatical categories.

The verb as a notional part of speech has
the categorial meaning of dynamic process, or process developing in time,
including not only actions as such (to work, to build), but also states, forms
of existence (to be, to become, to lie), various types of attitude, feelings
(to love, to appreciate), etc.

Formally, the verb is characterized by a
set of specific word-building affixes, e.g.: to activate, to widen, to
classify, to synchronize, to overestimate, to reread, etc.; there are some
other means of building verbs, among them sound-replacive and stress-shifting
models, e.g.: blood – to bleed, ?import – to im?port. There is a peculiar means
of rendering the meaning of the process, which occupies an intermediary
position between the word and the word-combination: the so-called “phrasal
verbs”, consisting of a verb and a postpositional element. Some phrasal verbs
are closer to the word, because their meaning cannot be deduced from the
meaning of the verb or the meaning of the postposition separately, e.g.: to
give up, to give in, etc.; others are semantically closer to the word-combination,
e.g.: to stand up, to sit down, etc. A separate group of phrasal verbs is made
by combinations of broad meaning verbs to have, to give, to take and nouns,
e.g.: to give a look, to have rest, to have a bite, etc. The processual
semantics of the verb determines its combinability with nouns denoting either
the subject or the object of the action, and its combinability with adverbs
denoting the quality of the process. In certain contexts, some verbs can be
combined with adjectives (in compound nominal predicates) and other verbs.

The verb is usually characterized as the
most complex part of speech, because it has more word-changing categories than
any other notional part of speech. It is changed according to the categories of
person and number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Besides, each verb has a
specific set of non-finite forms (the infinitive, the gerund, participles I and
II), otherwise called “verbals”, or “verbids”, opposed to the finite forms of
the verb, otherwise called “finites”; their opposition is treated as “the
category of finitude”.

It is necessary to distinguish between
time as a general category and time as a linguistic category. Time in the
general philosophical presentation along with space is the form of existence of
matter; it is independent of human perception and is constantly changing. Time
is reflected by human beings through their perception and intellect and finds
its expression in language, in the meaning of various lexical and grammatical
lingual units. The moment of immediate perception and reflection of actual
reality, linguistically fixed as “the moment of speech”, makes the so-called
“present moment” and serves as the demarcation line between the past and the
future.  Linguistic expression of time may be either oriented toward the moment
of speech, “present-oriented”, “absolutive”, or it may be
“non-present-oriented”, “non-absolutive”. The “absolutive time” denotation
embraces three spheres: the past, the present and the future. The sphere of the
present includes the moment of speech and can be expressed lexically by such
words and word-combinations as this moment, today, this week, this millennium,
etc. The sphere of the past precedes the sphere of the present by way of
retrospect and can be expressed lexically by such words and word-combinations
as last week, yesterday, many years ago, etc. The sphere of the future follows
the sphere of the present by way of prospect and can be expressed lexically by
such words and word-combinations as soon, in two days, next week, etc. The
“non-present-oriented” time denotation may be either “relative” or “factual”.
The “relative time” denotation shows the correlation of two or more events and
embraces the priority (the relative past), the simultaneity (the relative
present) and the posteriority (the relative future) of one event in relation to
another. Relative time is lexically expressed by such words and
word-combinations as after that, before that, at the same time with, some time
later, soon after, etc. The factual expression of time denotes real
astronomical time or historical landmarks unrelated with either the moment of
speech or any other time center; it can be expressed lexically by such words
and word-combinations as in the morning, in 1999, during World War II, etc.The
verbal category of tense in the most general sense expresses the time
characteristics of the process denoted by the verb.The first verbal tense
category, which can be called “primary time”, “absolutive time”, or
“retrospective time”, is expressed by the opposition of the past and the
present forms. The suffix “-ed” of the regular verbs is the formal feature
which marks the past as the strong member of the opposition. Besides this
productive form, there are some unproductive past forms of verbs, such as
suppletive forms (e.g.: eat – ate), or past forms homonymous with the present
(cut – cut). The marked forms denote past actions which receive retrospective
evaluation from the point of view of the moment of speech. The present, like
any other weak member of an opposition, has a much wider range of meanings than
its strong counterpart: the present denotes actions taking place in the sphere
of the present, during the period of time including the moment of speech, e.g.:
What are you doing?; Terrorism is the major threat of the twenty first century;
it may denote repeated actions, e.g.: We go out every Friday night; actions
unchanged in the course of time, e.g.: Two plus two makes four; universal
truths, e.g.: He who laughs last laughs best; instantaneous actions which begin
and end approximately at the moment of speech (as in sports commentaries),
e.g.: Smith passes to Brown; etc. To stress its weak oppositional
characteristics the present is also referred to as “non-past”. The second
verbal tense category, which may be called “prospective”, or “relative”, is
formed by the opposition of the future and the non-future separately in
relation to the present or to the past. The strong member of the opposition is
the future, marked by the auxiliary verbs shall/will (the future in relation to
the present) or should/would (the future in relation to the past). It is used
to denote posterior actions, after-actions in relation to some other actions or
to a certain point of time in the present or in the past.

The general meaning of the category of
aspect is the inherent mode of realization of the process. Aspect is closely
connected with time semantics, showing, as A. M. Peshkovsky puts it, “the
distribution of the action in time”, or the “temporal structure” of the action.

Like time, aspect can be expressed both by
lexical and grammatical means. This is one more grammatical domain in which
English differs dramatically from Russian: in Russian, aspect is rendered by
lexical means only, through the subdivision of verbs into perfective and
imperfective, делать – сделать; видеть – увидеть; etc. In Russian the aspective
classification of verbs is constant and very strict; it presents one of the
most typical characteristics of the grammatical system of the verb and governs
its tense system formally and semantically. In English, as shown in Unit 10,
the aspective meaning is manifested in the lexical subdivision of verbs into
limitive and unlimitive, e.g.: to go – to come, to sit – sit down, etc. But
most verbs in English migrate easily from one subclass to the other and their
aspective meaning is primarily rendered by grammatical means through special
variable verbal forms.

The expression of aspective semantics in
English verbal forms is interconnected with the expression of temporal
semantics; that is why in practical grammar they are treated not as separate
tense and aspect forms but as specific tense-aspect forms, cf.: the present
continuous – I am working; the past continuous – I was working; the past
perfect and the past indefinite – I had done my work before he came, etc.

The
verb as a notional part of speech has the categorial meaning of dynamic
process, or process developing in time, including not only actions as such (to
work, to build), but also states, forms of existence (to be, to become, to
lie), various types of attitude, feelings (to love, to appreciate), etc.

Formally,
the verb is characterized by a set of specific word-building affixes, e.g.: to
activate, to widen, to classify, to synchronize, to overestimate, to reread,
etc.; there are some other means of building verbs, among them sound-replacive
and stress-shifting models, e.g.: blood – to bleed, import – to import. There
is a peculiar means of rendering the meaning of the process, which occupies an
intermediary position between the word and the word-combination: the so-called
“phrasal verbs”, consisting of a verb and a postpositional element. Some
phrasal verbs are closer to the word, because their meaning cannot be deduced
from the meaning of the verb or the meaning of the postposition separately,
e.g.: to give up, to give in, etc.; others are semantically closer to the
word-combination, e.g.: to stand up, to sit down, etc. A separate group of
phrasal verbs is made by combinations of broad meaning verbs to have, to give,
to take and nouns, e.g.: to give a look, to have rest, to have a bite, etc. The
processual semantics of the verb determines its combinability with nouns
denoting either the subject or the object of the action, and its combinability
with adverbs denoting the quality of the process. In certain contexts, some
verbs can be combined with adjectives (in compound nominal predicates) and
other verbs.

The
verb is usually characterized as the most complex part of speech, because it
has more word-changing categories than any other notional part of speech. It is
changed according to the categories of person and number, tense, aspect, voice
and mood. Besides, each verb has a specific set of non-finite forms (the
infinitive, the gerund, participles I and II), otherwise called “verbals”, or
“verbids”, opposed to the finite forms of the verb, otherwise called “finites”;
their opposition is treated as “the category of finitude”.

The
category of mood expresses the character of connections between  the process
denoted by the verb and actual reality, in other words, it shows whether the
action is real or unreal. This category is realized through the opposition of
the direct (indicative) mood forms of the verb and the oblique mood forms: the
indicative mood shows that the process is real, i.e. that it took place in the
past, takes place in the present, or will take place in the future, e.g.: She
helped me; She helps me; She will help me; the oblique mood shows that the
process is unreal, imaginary (hypothetical, possible or impossible, desired,
etc.), e.g.: If only she helped me! In this respect the category of mood
resembles the category of voice: it shows the speaker’s subjective
interpretation of the event as either actual or imaginary.

Different
classifications of the oblique mood types are based either on formal criteria
or on functional criteria: different scholars distinguish synthetical and
analytical moods, past and present moods; different types of unreality are used
as the basis for distinguishing the so-called imperative, subjunctive,
conditional and suppositional moods. The combination of the two approaches is
also very often misleading, since within the category of mood different
meanings may be rendered by one and the same form and, vice versa, different
verbal forms may render the same meaning.

Since
all the oblique mood types share a common functional basis, the meaning of
unreality, they may be terminologically united as subjunctive[1]; and then
several types of the subjunctive can be distinguished according to the form of
expression and the various shades of unreality expressed.

Subjunctive
I (spective) Form: bare infinitive (imperfect) Meaning: attitudes Example: Be
it so!

Subjunctive
II (stipulative conditional) Form: the past (imperfect or perfect) Meaning:
unreal condition Example: If she tried…

Subjunctive
III (consective conditional) Form: future-in-the-past (imperfect or perfect)
Meaning: consequence of unreal condition Example: … she would manage it.

Subjunctive
IV (modal spective) Form: modal verbs + bare infinitive (imperfect or perfect)
Meaning: attitudes Example: May it be so!

The
verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the
participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic structure of the
sentence. Voice is a very specific verbal category: first, it does not reflect
the actual properties of the process denoted, but the speaker’s appraisal of
it; the speaker chooses which of the participants in the situation – the agent
(the subject, the doer of the action) or the patient (the object, the receiver
of the action, the experiencer) – should be presented as the subject of the
syntactic construction. Second, though it is expressed through the
morphological forms of the verb, voice is closely connected with the structural
organization of the syntactic construction: the use of passive or active forms
of the verb involves the use of the passive or active syntactic construction.

The
category of voice is expressed by the opposition of the passive and active
forms of the verb; the active form of the verb is the unmarked, weak member of
the opposition, and the passive is the strong member marked by the combination
of the auxiliary verb to be (or the verbs to get, to become in colloquial
speech) and participle II of the notional verb. It denotes the action received
or a state experienced by the referent of the subject of the syntactic
construction; in other words, the syntactic subject of the sentence denotes the
patient, the receiver of the action in the situation described, while the
syntactic object, if any, denotes the doer, or the agent of the action, e.g.:
The cup was broken by his daughter. Passive constructions are used when the
agent is unknown or irrelevant, e.g.: He was killed during the war; The cup has
been broken.  

3.      The
problem of parts of the sentence.

It’s common in
grammar to distinguish between main and secondary parts of sp. Besides these
two types there is one more – elements which are said to stand outside the
sentence structure. In starting now to study parts of the sentence in Modern
English, we will begin by analyzing the principle or principles on which this
classification is based. There are two generally recognized main parts of the
sentence – the subject and the predicate. As to the secondary parts, their
number varies slightly. Among them we usually find the object (with its
subdivisions), the attribute, and the adverbial modifier. Other secondary parts
are also sometimes mentioned – apposition (its relation to the attribute is
variously interpreted), the objective predicative, and occasionally some other
parts, too. The reason for calling the subject and the predicate the main parts
of the S. and distinguishing them from all other parts which are treated as
secondary is roughly this. The subject and the predicate between them
constitute the backbone of the S.: without them the S. would not exist at all,
whereas all other parts may or may not be there, and if they are there, they
serve to define or modify either the subject or the predicate, or each other. A
linguistic experiment to prove the correctness of this view would be to take a
sentence containing a subject, a predicate, and a number of secondary parts,
and to show that any of the secondary parts might be removed without the
sentence being destroyed, whereas if either the subject or the predicate were
removed there would be no sentence left: its “backbone” would be broken. This
experiment would probably succeed and prove the point in a vast majority of
cases. We will therefore stick to the division of sentence parts into main and
secondary, taking the subject and the predicate to be the main parts, and all
others to be secondary.  

4.      Communicative
types of sentences and their classificaton as an issue.

Communicative
Sentences

1Communicative
types of s-ces 3 cardinal s-ce types:declarative,       
imperative,interrogative.Dec-ve expr-s a statement(affir-ve/neg)               

Im-ve
— inducement(aff/neg), — request/command. Int-ve — request for infor-n.

Ch.Fries:
classed them acc-g to responses they elict. In this  system utter-ce is chosen
as a  universal speech unit. 1) situation ut-s 2) response ut-s. 1) were
dividedinto 3 groups: a)ut followed by oral responses (greetings,
calls,questions. hello! dad!) b)ut-s eliciting action res-s
(requests/commands). c)ut-s  eliciting conventional signals of attention to
continuous discourse (statements). Also exist non-commun-ve ut-s (charact-c of
surprise, anger, pain — Oh!,Darn!). Another type is recognized exclamatory
s-ce.

1 Each
of cardinal com-ve s-ces can be repres-ed in 2 variants: excl-ry/non-exc. What
a nice dog! It’s a very nice dog. Then why in God’s name did you come? Why did
you come? In the light of of theory  of actual division: each comm-ve type is
distin-ed by spec. act-al div-n features,which are revealed in the nature of
rheme. Dec-ve s-s espr-s certain proposition.Rheme makes  up centre os
statement-the next instant she had recogn-ed him.- rheme. Imp-ve s-s exp-s an
urge to do smth/not to do. Rheme exp-s inform-ve nucleus of inducement. Its
thematic subject is zeroed. Don’t try to sidetrack me! Inter-ve s-s expr-s
inquiry about inf-n.Rheme is informat-ly opened. Purely excl-ry s-s interjectional
exlamations (Good Lord!)

These
types of sentences are more intended for the speaker’s sake than for any
potential listener. They are meant more for the speaker’s immediate wants and
needs. These sentences tend to be less intentional (out of frustration for
example), in general more rhetorical or literal, more primitive, and are
usually about the here and now. Because of these features, it is generally
speculated that this is pretty much the basis or limitation of any form of
animal communication. (Speculated because scientists will never truly be able
to understand non-human forms of communication like we do our own; although
studies with «talking» primates have clued us in to a certain
degree.)

Exclamatory

An
exclamative or exclamatory sentence is released because of, and expresses
strong emotion. They many times feel like involuntary reactions to a situation,
yet they can technically be stifled if need be. And while exclamatives most
usually manifest themselves as one or two word interjections, they can also
come as major sentences. They are essentially unfiltered vocalizations of our
feelings, and a form of self-talk because they are directed either at the
speaker themself or at nobody in particular. In punctuation, an exclamative is
ended with an exclamation mark.

•          Ouch!

•          I’ll
never finish this paper in time!

Imperative

An
imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request,
direction, or instruction. Imperative sentences are more intentional than
exclamatory sentences and do require an audience; as their aim is to get the
person(s) being addressed either to do or to not do something. And although
this function usually deals with the immediate temporal vicinity, its scope can
be extended, i.e. you can order somebody to move out as soon as you find
yourself a job. The negative imperative can also be called the prohibitive and
the inclusive plural imperative, the hortative. It is debatable whether the
imperative is only truly possible in the second person. The vocative case of nouns
can be said to indicate the imperative as well since it does not seek
information, but rather a reaction from the one being addressed. An imperative
can end in either a period or an exclamation point depending on delivery.

•          Look
at me!

•          After
separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and
fluffy.

Informative
Sentences

Informative
sentences are more for the mutual benefit of both the listener and the speaker,
and, in fact, require more of an interaction between both parties involved.
They are more intentional or premeditated, less rhetorical, more cooperative,
and they aim to either provide or retrieve information, making them
quintessential abstractions. But perhaps the most differentiating quality that
distinguishes informative sentences from the communicative is that the former
more naturally and freely make use of displacement. Displacement refers to
information lost in time and space which allows us to communicate ideas
relating to the past or future (not just the now), and that have taken or can
take place at a separate location (from here). To an extent, this is one of the
biggest differences between human communication and that of other animals.

Declarative

The
declarative sentence is the most common kind of sentence in language, in most
situations, and in a way can be considered the default function of a sentence.
What this means essentially is that when a language modifies a sentence in
order to form a question or give a command, the base form will always be the
declarative. In its most basic sense, a declarative states an idea (either
objectively or subjectively on the part of the speaker; and may be either true
or false) for the sheer purpose of transferring intel. In writing, a statement
will end with a period.

•          Roses
are red and violets are blue.

•          She
must be out of her mind.

Interrogative

An
interrogative sentence asks a question and hence ends with a question mark. In
speech, it almost universally ends in a rising inflection. Its effort is to try
and gather information that is presently unknown to the interrogator, or to
seek validation for a preconceived notion held. Beyond seeking confirmation or
contradiction, sometimes it is approval or permission that is sought as well,
among other reasons one could have for posing a question. The one exception in
which it isn’t information that is needed, is when the question happens to be
rhetorical (see allofunctional implicature section below). While an imperative
is a call for action, an interrogative is a call for information.

•          What
do you want?

•          Are
you feeling well?

Источник

По кнопке выше «Купить бумажную книгу» можно купить эту книгу с доставкой по всей России и похожие книги по самой лучшей цене в бумажном виде на сайтах официальных интернет магазинов Лабиринт, Озон, Буквоед, Читай-город, Литрес, My-shop, Book24, Books.ru.

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По кнопке «Найти похожие материалы на других сайтах» можно искать похожие материалы на других сайтах.

On the buttons above you can buy the book in official online stores Labirint, Ozon and others. Also you can search related and similar materials on other sites.

Материалы для подготовки к обязательному выпускному экзамену по английскому языку, Воробьева Л.Г., Мельникова О.О., 2018.

    Пособие содержит образцы экзаменационных материалов и заданий но английскому языку. Сборник состоит из трех частей, каждая из которых структурно соответствует определенному этапу экзамена. Для подготовки к первому этапу предлагается 70 текстов для чтения и материалы для собеседования, ко второму — 70 аудиотекстов (доступны для скачивания на aversev.by и mslu.by) и материалы для собеседования, а для подготовки к третьему этану экзамена приводится 70 вариантов материалов для беседы но предложенной ситуации общения.
Пособие можно использовать на уроках английского языка, на факультативных занятиях, а также для самостоятельной работы учащихся.
Адресуется старшеклассникам для полноценной и качественной подготовки к выпускному экзамену но английскому языку, а также учителям.

Материалы для подготовки к обязательному выпускному экзамену по английскому языку, Воробьева Л.Г., Мельникова О.О., 2018

ARE YOU PROUD OF BEING BELARUSIAN?
I am Belarusian because my parents who gave me life and brought me up are Belarusians. And what if I were born in a different country on a different continent? In my opinion, a sense of pride in your country, a sense of belonging to a particular nation develops in a person with time. Therefore at my age, by the way I am 18,1 can say quite positively, that I am proud to live in Belarus.

The real treasure of Belarus is its wonderful nature. The country has hundreds of wild forests, rolling hills, green valleys, sweet-scented meadows and golden fields. Belo^ezhskaya Pushcha is the only place where you can meet mighty European bison in the wild. Belarus is also famous for its clear lakes and ribbonlike rivers, that’s why it’s called a blue-eyed one. The resorts of lakes Naroch and Braslav are open all year round and let tourists experience the unforgettable peaceful atmosphere.

I am proud of the rich heroic history of my country. Although for many centuries we were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania*, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and then the Russian Empire*, we have managed to stay united and haven’t lost our uniqueness. Many foreigners admit that our people are extremely sociable, hospitable, generous and, welcoming. We are also described as resourceful and peaceful. When socialising, Belarusians are open, warmhearted, fun-loving, humorous and outgoing in spite of all the difficulties they face in their life.

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Дата публикации: 18.05.2018 17:18 UTC

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Источник

Аудирование

№1

Three young men were playing with a gun in a street in a quiet area of the town after dark when one of them fired it by mistake without aiming it at anything. The bullet broke a window in an old lady’s house.

The young men made off at once when they saw the damage they had done, but the old lady looked out of a window when she heard the explosion, and she recognized one of them as the son of a man and a woman who lived not far from her.

The old lady complained to the police, and a detective came to her house. The old lady gave him a detailed account of everything that had happened, and then the detective asked her if she knew where the young man lived. The old lady told him that too, so the detective went to the young man’s house. He and his companions tried to hide, but the detective found them and the gun and took them to the police station.

There his chief officer questioned the young men to find out which of them owned the gun, but none of them was willing to say. The young man who owned the gun did not dare to admit that he did, because he did not have a licence for it.

At last the chief officer decided to put an end to the conversation, so he turned to the detective and demanded to know whether he had got an officer’s permission to take the gun away from the young man who owned it.

The detective felt anxious when he heard this question. “No, sir,” he answered nervously, “I didn’t get it”.

“In that case,” the officer declared angrily, “you were quite wrong to take it away from him. You’d better return it immediately or there’ll be trouble!”

This made the young men smile happily at each other, and as soon as the detective held the gun out and said, “Here you are”. One of them put his hand out in order to get it back.

That is how the officer finally discovered whom the gun belonged to.

1)  What were three men doing in the street?

2)  What did they do with the gun?

3) Did the detective know whose the gun was?

4) Did the detective discover whom the gun belonged to?

№2

When Polly left school, she had no idea what she wanted to do. A friend of hers, who was a year older, and whose name was Josephine, was at art college, and she persuaded Polly to join her there.

Polly’s father worked in a factory, and her mother worked in a shop. They were saving their money to buy their own house, and they had hoped that Polly would start earning too as soon as she left school, so when she told them that she wanted to go to art college, she expected to have an objection. But in fact they had none.

“You’ll have to find some kind of a job to pay for your college,” Polly’s mother warned her. “Your father and I will be very happy to keep you at home, but we have no money for your college course, and none for paints and all the other things you’ll need”.

“Thank you very much,” Polly answered. “I’m really very grateful to you both. And there’s no problem about getting a job; the head of the art college has offered me one in their library”.

After a few months, Polly’s parents really felt very proud that their daughter was going to college, especially when she brought home some of the things she had painted, for which she had received high praise from her teachers.

Polly sometimes went to museums to see paintings by famous artists, and one day she said to her parents, “Why don’t you come to a museum with me one day? Then I can tell you all about the paintings, and you can see the kinds of things I’m trying to do myself”.

Polly’s mother was free on Thursday afternoons and on Saturdays, but her father sometimes had to work on those days. They waited until Saturday when he didn’t have to work, and then they all went off to the museum that Polly had chosen.

She showed her parents some famous paintings, and then they came to one that they recognized.

“This,” Polly said, pointing to it, “is Van Gogh’s ‘Sunflowers’.” “What a cheek,” her father answered. “He’s copied the picture we’ve had in our hall for the last ten years!”

 1) What did Polly decide to do after leaving school?

2) Why did Polly’s parents feel proud of their daughter?

3) Where did Polly invite her parents to one day?

4) What  picture did Polly show her parents in the museum?

№3

Sam was an old farmer. He was born on his farm and had lived on it all his life. He had married his neighbour’s daughter, and they grew fruit and vegetables.

Sam got up at five o’clock every morning to gather them and take a load off to market in his old truck.

There were very few vehicles on the country roads at that time of the morning, and Sam knew how to get to market very well, so as he was going along, he was always thinking about everything except his driving.

One morning he was thinking about what crops to plant for the next year’s harvest, and whether to try something else. A lot of other farmers were planting the same things which he produced, so the prices in the market were coming down and he was getting less money.

After a few kilometres, Sam came to a place where the small road which went in the direction of the market crossed a bigger one, and he continued over it without stopping. He always crossed the big road like that, because there was never any traffic on it at that time of the morning, so there was no fear of having an accident, and anyway he was always in a hurry, because he wanted to get to the market in time for its opening.

But this morning a young policeman whom he had never seen before signalled to him to stop a hundred metres beyond the crossroads.

Sam stopped beside the policeman, and the policeman said to him, “Didn’t you know that there was a sign telling you to stop at the crossroads before going over the main road?”

“Oh, yes,” answered Sam, «I knew that there was a sign at that point, because I go to market along this road every morning. But what I unfortunately didn’t know was that you were here”.

1) Who was Sam?

2)  Where had Sam lived all his life?

3)  Why was Sam always in a hurry?

4) Did he notice the policeman?

№4

When Sebastian was a boy at school, his favourite lesson was art, and he won several prizes for it. Once he left school, he got a position as a clerk in a bank, but three times a week he went to evening classes in art, and whenever he had time at the week-ends, he painted.

He painted in a very modern manner—mysterious objects and shapes, women with three pink eyes, large blank areas, and so on.

After a few months he thought, “Perhaps I can sell some of my pictures and get enough money to afford to leave the bank and become a real artist. Then I can travel around as much as I like, and go to foreign museums, and see other artists’ paintings, and study in other countries when I feel like it. Though I try to make the best of the job and I don’t regard the work as difficult — at least not at present -— I don’t like life in a bank. I only enjoy painting”.

In the bank, Sebastian sometimes had to deal with a man who owned a picture shop, and after he had had a few conversations with him, Sebastian invited him to his home one evening to see some of his work. “Then perhaps you could tell me whether I can really be a good artist and get some money from my painting,” Sebastian said hopefully.

The man said he was prepared to come and see what he thought of Sebastian’s work, so he arrived one evening at Sebastian’s home. Sebastian took the man to his studio and started to show him some of his pictures, with some pride and hope.

The man looked at them one after the other while Sebastian watched his face, but to Sebastian’s disappointment the man did not say anything, and his expression did not change at any of them.

Then, when he had finished, he looked around, and his glance fell on something else. A happy look came over his face for the first time, and he said, “Now I like one very much! It’s so full of deep feeling! I’m sure I could sell this one for you!”

“That,” said Sebastian, “is the place where I clean the paint off my brushes”.

1) What was Sebastiasn’s favourite lesson at school?

2)  What manner did Sebastian paint in?

3) What was Sebastian’s dream ?

4)  Did the  visitor like Sebastian’s paintings?

№5

Sleep is a subject few people know much about. We do know, though, that sleep is important for our physical health and for our mental well being.

But scientists tell us that sleep can only refresh us mentally and physically when given enough time to do so. And the correct amount of time varies from individual to individual. Seven hours may be too little for some, resulting in tiredness and restlessness. Or it may be too much. Only you can tell how much sleep you need to maintain your peak form.

Surveys show that 60% of the population sleeps between seven and eight hours a night. The other 40% sleep less, or more. So if you are not getting your eight hours each night, and you feel fine, maybe you don’t need as much sleep as you think you do.

Other factors that determine your sleep needs are your health, your job, your emotional state, and the «efficiency» of your sleep. Sleep efficiency is very important because 6 hours of sound, restful sleep will do you more good than 10 hours of tossing and turning.

What you sleep on is also very important. A surface that is too soft can cause lower back pain. A mattress that is too hard can cause painful pressure at the shoulders and hips.

For sleep that is truly efficient, support and comfort must work hand in hand. That is why it makes sense to buy the highest quality bedding you can afford.

If you suffer from insomnia, as some people do, mild exercise can often help you to sleep at night. Just don’t exercise too strenuously before bedtime. Generally speaking, exercise is important. In fact, there is some evidence that the better your physical condition, the better you will be able to sleep.

In today’s competitive fast moving world it’s more important than ever to be the best you can be. And when you sleep your best, you can look and feel your best. And that means you can do your best at anything you pursue. You have the energy and the feeling of well-being that makes each day easier and more enjoyable.

Sleep is too important to be taken lightly.

1) Is sleep important ?

2)  Why must people take care of the surface they sleep on?

3) Why do you need to sleep your best?

7) How many hours do people need for sleeping?

№6

I don’t live in Tokyo. I don’t even know whether I would like to live there. I love it and hate it — it is one of those places that you can love and hate at the same time.

The first «fact» about Tokyo, for me, is that there are too many people. I don’t mean the fact that twelve million people live there. That is four million more than London or New York, but it is not an important fact for me.

In Tokyo there are always too many people in the places where I want to be. That is the important fact for me. Of course there are too many cars. The Japanese drive very fast when they can but in Tokyo they often spend a long time in traffic jams. Tokyo is not different from London, Paris and New York. It is different when one wants to walk.

At certain times of the day there are a lot of people on foot in London’s Oxford Street or near the big shops and stores in other great cities. But the streets in Tokyo always have a lot of people on foot, and sometimes it is really difficult to walk. People are very polite; there are just too many of them.

The worst time to be in the street is at 11.30 at night. That is when the night-clubs are closing and everybody wants to go home. Between 11 and 12 everybody is looking for a taxi. Usually the taxis are shared by four or five people who live in the same part of the city.

During the day, people use the trains. Perhaps the first thing you notice in Tokyo is the number of trains. Most people travel to and from work by train, and there is a station at almost every street corner. At most stations, trains arrive every two or three minutes, but at certain hours there do not seem to be enough trains. At 8 o’clock in the morning you can see students pushing passengers into the trains. Usually the trains are nearly full when they arrive at the station, so the students have to push very hard. Sometimes the pushers are also pushed in by mistake, and they have to get out at the next station. Although they are usually crowded, Japanese trains are very good. They always leave and arrive on time. On a London train you would see everybody reading a newspaper. In Tokyo trains everybody in a seat seems to be asleep. Some Japanese make a train journey of two hours to go to work, so they do their sleeping on the train. But if a train journey lasts only five minutes, and if they have a seat, they will also go to sleep. They always wake when they arrive at their station.

1) What is the population of Tokyo?

2) How do the Japanese drive?

3) What is the worst time to be in the street in Tokyo?

4) Do the Japanese use cars or trains during the day?

№7

John Cleef s father played for a Dutch football club when he was a young man. When the Cleefs left Holland and moved to London, John began school as a six-year-old. No one in the family was surprised when he started to take a great interest in football. The school he went to played football four afternoons a week (except in the summer, when they all played cricket).

John’s abilities were obvious and when he was 12, a talent scout from one of the big football clubs spoke to his parents about him. Mr. Cleef said he was too young to think about football as a career. But two years later, John took part in a special schoolboys’ football match arranged by the club. John scored three goals, and he was certain that his future lay in football. Two years later he signed a contract with the club.

John has been lucky, because it is a good club. It makes sure that all the new young players — apprentice players, as they are called — keep up their schooling. Everyone knows that out often apprentices, perhaps only one will have a career in football.

It is a hard day for John and the other apprentices. The day starts at the football ground at ten o’clock with a meeting, followed by an hour and a half’s training. After lunch the apprentices clean football boots, sweep out the stadium, and wash out the changing-rooms.

The young footballers are expected to be in peak physical condition which means, says John, no late nights, no drinking, and a rather limited social life. “Not all the girls understand this, but I know I have two years to try and make my mark. That means that the girls will have to wait. I watch football every evening I can — and dream of becoming a star!”

John is supported 100% by his parents. His father is proud of him, and perhaps sees John fulfilling his own dream of becoming a football star. “For me it would be marvellous to have a Cleef playing for England,” he says with a smile, “even if it should mean that they beat Holland ten-nil!”

1) How old was John when he signed a contract with the club?

2) What are the duties of an apprentice ?

5) What does being in peak physical condition mean for the young players?

7) Is John’s father proud of him?

№8

There are about 22,000 police officers in England. Out of these, 1,500 are women. Twenty years ago, a woman police-officer was an unusual sight. Then there were only 500 of them. Their job was mostly in the police stations doing the routine office work, or going out and doing what you could call social work. But today the picture is quite different. You meet female officers on the beat, controlling crowds, and directing traffic.

“That’s the way it should be,” says one policewoman. “We get the same pay as the men and we share the same conditions as they have. Of course, there are still some policemen who haven’t quite accepted us yet. I must admit, too, that there are certain situations where we are not in the front line. For example if there is a very violent demonstration, then it is the male officers who keep the crowd back. We are given other jobs. We simply don’t have the strength to do the job. On the other hand, there are also many situations where the men are very glad to let us take over. Often we are better than the men when there are problems with women — and specially children. If there is any resistance to women police-officers, it comes from the older policemen. They remember the «good old days» when a policeman was — a man! The younger officers are very glad to work with us. What is even more important, I think, is the reaction of the public. They are always very positive. Women are good at defusing dangerous situations. I mean, we are good at calming people down. There is still a lot of respect for women in general—for example, some people think it is all right to hit a policeman, but they wouldn’t dream of hitting a woman. In violent situations we do not seem so aggressive as men, and this really helps. Mind you, if it comes to a fight, women police-officers are highly trained!”

1) Do police-women take part in dealing with very violent demonstrations?

2) How do women police-officers behave in dangerous situations?

3)  Was it a usual thing to meet a policewoman 20 years ago?

4) Are there situations when police-women are better than men?

№9

As the train approached the seaside town where I was going to spend my holidays, I went into the corridor to stretch my legs. I stayed there a short time, breathing in the fresh sea air and talking to one of the passengers, whom I had met earlier on the station platform.

When I turned to go back to my seat, I happened to glance into the compartment next to mine. Sitting there was a man who many years before had been my neighbour. He was a great talker, I remembered; it used to take hours to get away from him once he began a conversation. I was not at all sorry when he went to live in another part of London. We had not met since then, nor did I wish to meet him now, when my holiday was about to begin.

Luckily at that moment he was much too busy talking to the man opposite him to catch sight of me. I slipped back into my compartment, took down my two suitcases and carried them to the far end of the corridor so as to be ready to get off the train as soon as it stopped. The moment the train stopped, I called a porter, who in no time at all had carried my luggage out of the station and found me a taxi. As I drove towards my small hotel on the edge of the town, I breathed a deep sigh of relief at my narrow escape. There was little chance that I should run into my boring ex-neighbour again.

When I reached the hotel, I went straight to my room and rested there until it was time for dinner. Then I went down to the lounge and ordered a drink. I hadn’t even begun to drink when an all too familiar voice greeted me. I had not escaped from my tiresome neighbour after all! He grasped me warmly by the hand and insisted that we should share a table in the dining-room. “This is a pleasant surprise,” he said. “I never expected to see you again after all these years”.

  1. Where was the narrator going to spend his holidays?
  2. Was the narrator glad to see his neighbour?

3)   What did the narrator do to escape from the man?

4)  Where did the narrator meet his neighbour  again?

№10

The party began just after nine. Mr. Wood, who lived in the flat below, sighed to himself as he heard the first signs: people running up the stairs; the sound of excited voices as the guests greeted one another; and the noise of loud music. Luckily Mr. Wood had brought some work home from the office, which he did for a couple of hours, and managed to ignore the party which was going on over his head. But by eleven o’clock he felt tired and was ready to go to bed, though from his experience of previous parties he knew that it was useless trying to get to sleep. He undressed and lay for a while on the bed, trying to read, but the noise from the room directly above his head did not allow him to concentrate on what he was reading. He found himself reading the same page over and over again. He then switched off the light and buried his head in the pillow, in a desperate effort to go to sleep. But there was no way he could shut the noise. Finally, after what seemed hours, he switched on the light and looked at his watch: it was just after midnight.

By now his patience was quite exhausted. He leapt out of bed and, putting a dressing-gown over his pyjamas, marched up the stairs to his neighbour’s flat. He rang the bell several times but the door remained closed. This made him more angry. Just then one of the guests came out and went off down the stairs, leaving the door open. Mr. Wood went in. In spite of his odd clothing, no one took any notice of him. Then he saw the owner of the flat and managed to attract his attention. The man, whose name was Black, came across the room, smiling cheerfully, and before Mr. Wood could open his mouth to complain, said: “My dear fellow, come in and join us. I know our parties must bother you. I meant to send you an invitation”. Mr. Wood’s anger vanished at once. “I’d better go and get properly dressed,” he said. As Mr. Wood left the room, Black turned to one of the guests and said: “As soon as I set eyes on him, I knew he’d come to make trouble. That’s why I asked him to join us. Did you see how pleased he was? He went off at once to get changed. What a pity the party’s nearly over!”

1) What was Mr. Wood doing during that evening?

2) Did Mr. Wood try to ignore the party?

3) How did Mr. Wood try to go to sleep?

4) What did Mr. Wood decide to do?

№ 11

Tom was looking forward to his first journey by Tube, as the underground railway in London is called. He had heard a great deal about it from his friends who had already been to England. They all advised him not to travel alone the first time. But Tom is the kind of person who never listens to anyone’s advice. It is not surprising, therefore, that his first journey by Tube was not a great success.

Tom entered the station just after five o’clock in the afternoon. This is a bad time to travel in London, both by bus and train, because crowds of people go home from work at this hour. He had to join a long queue of people who were waiting for tickets. When at last his turn came, he had some difficulty in making the man understand the name of the station he wanted to go to. The people in the queue behind him began to grumble impatiently at the delay. However, he got the right ticket in the end and found the right platform. This was packed with people. He did not manage to get on the first train, but he was able to move nearer the edge of the platform and was in a better position to get on the next one. When this came in, Tom was pushed forward on to the train by the people behind him. The doors closed and the train moved off before he was able to get his breath back. He was unable to see the names of the stations where the train stopped, but he had counted the number of stops so that he knew exactly where to get off. His station was the sixth along the line. When the train reached the sixth station, Tom got off, happy that his journey had been so easy. But he was alarmed to see that he had got off at a station that he had never heard of! He did not know what to do. He explained his difficulty to a man who was standing on the platform. With a look of amusement on his face the man told Tom that he had travelled on a train going in the wrong direction.

1) Has Tom ever travelled by a Tube?

2) Did Tom travel alone or with his friends?

3)Did Tom have any difficulties in getting the ticket?

4) What did Tom realize when he got off the train?

№ 12

Michael didn’t feel able to talk about the bullying to anyone. His mother would worry, he knew that. His sister had her own life and he couldn’t talk to her. And he was afraid of what the bullies might do to him if he told any of the teachers. He should be able to deal with the situation on his own, he thought — and if he couldn’t, well, that was his problem.

He didn’t even enjoy his lessons any more, because it was too hard to concentrate. As he sat in class each day, he thought about what might happen after school and his mind went completely blank. And sure enough, two or three times a week, the bullies were out there waiting for him.

“Well, now, Jenkins, what’ve you got for us today?” they shouted. He took the money from his pockets and gave it to them-without a word. Sometimes they still hit him, for the fun of it, but usually they ran off laughing.

The day everything changed was the day before half-term. Michael had stayed late at school because he needed some advice about an English project. The school grounds were empty by the time he left, but he stayed tense and watchful on the short walk to the bus-stop.

There was only one other boy from the school at the bus-stop, and Michael stared at him in disbelief. He was in the lowest class, so he was probably eleven years old, but he looked younger. His clothes were dirty and torn, and he was crying quietly.

“Hey, what happened to you? Are you OK?” Michael asked, but he had a sick feeling in his stomach.

“These boys … they said they’d hurt me if… if I didn’t give them money”, the younger boy said. “And I haven’t got any money — only my bus pass…”

“Were there three of them?” Michael asked quickly. “They’re from school, aren’t they?”

The child looked at him with surprise and nodded. Tears dripped from his cheeks to the ground. Michael took a deep breath.

“It happens to me too,” he said, “and there’s only one way to stop it. We’ve got to tell someone. Come with me”.

He led the way back to the school, and found his English teacher. As Michael told his story, the boys could see sympathy and anger in her face. When he finished, there was a short silence.

“Is this right, Ben?” she said to the younger boy. “Are you sure the bullies who hurt you are the same ones?”

“Yes,” he whispered. “The same ones”.

She looked at each of them in turn. “You can leave it to me now,” she said quietly. “I’ll see the head first thing in the morning. And don’t worry, either of you. This won’t happen again, I promise you”.

1) What problem did Michael have?

2) Why couldn’t Michael talk to members of his family about his problem?

3) What happened one day?

4)  What was the teacher’s reaction to Michael’s words?

№13

     More and more people these days get caught shop-lifting; that is, taking things from shops and not paying for them. It is a big problem these days.

What actually happens if the shop-keeper thinks you have stolen something? The true story of Mrs. C. is a good example.

Mrs. С went shopping twice a week. She shopped for her own family and for some old people who could not get to the shops. She always went to the same supermarket. One day she met a friend in there. She had just chosen a piece of cheese from the shelf. The two of them talked and walked round the shop together. Then when her friend went out, Mrs. C. went with her. At once the shop-keeper caught her, and told her she had taken a piece of cheese without paying.

Mrs. C. was shocked and while she was trying to explain what had happened outside the shop, people stopped to see what was happening. Mrs. C. knew many of them and felt very ashamed. It looked as though she was a criminal! She said she would pay for it at once. But the shop-keeper called the police. A police-car came to the shop and she was taken away. When they got her to the police-station, she was questioned for three hours. After this she was charged and was told she would have to go to court.

During the next week, Mrs. C. stayed inside her house in a state of shock. She drank black coffee and took pills all the time. After only seven days, she had lost fourteen pounds in weight. The doctor saw her, and told her not to fight in court. “Say you did it, and get it over,” he said. He was afraid that she would have a heart-attack.

In a way the story had a happy ending, because the judge listened to the story, and just told her to go home and forget about it. She was free. But Mrs. C. is not the same woman. A whole year after this, she is still afraid to go out. She will not go into shops. She is afraid of what people think about her.

  1. How often did Mrs. C.  go shopping?

2) Whom did she meet at the supermarket?

3) What happened when Mrs. C. went out of the shop?

4)What did Mrs. C. try to explain to the shop-keeper?

№14

Mr. Gray travelled a lot on business. He sold machines of various kinds to farmers. It was not really a very exciting job, but Mr. Gray had always been interested in farming, and he was quite satisfied with his life.

He had a big car, and usually enjoyed driving it long distances, but he was quite satisfied to go by train sometimes too, especially when the weather was bad. He was a little frightened of driving in rain or snow, and it was less tiring to sit comfortably in a train and look out of the window without being worried about how one was going to get to the next place.

One of Mr. Gray’s problems was often where to stay when he reached some small place in the country. He did not expect great comfort and wonderful food, but he found it annoying when he was given a cold room, and there was no water or good food after a long and tiring day.

Late one winter evening, Mr. Gray arrived at a small railway station. The journey by train that day had not been at all interesting, and Mr. Gray was cold and tired and hungry. He was looking forward to a simple but satisfying meal by a brightly burning fire, and then a hot bath and comfortable bed.

While he was walking to the taxi rank, he said to a local man who was also walking there, “As this is my first visit to this part of the country and I was in too much of a hurry to find out about hotels before I left home, I would very much like to know how many you have here”.

The local man answered, “We have two”.

“And which of the two would you advise me to go to?” Mr. Gray asked then.

The local man scratched his head for a few moments and then answered, “Well, it’s like this: whichever one you go to, you’ll be sorry you didn’t go to the other”.

  1. What was Mr. Gray ‘s business?

2) What did Mr. Gray need most of all after a long and tiring journey?

3)How many hotels were there in the town?

4) Why couldn’t the local man give Mr. Gray a definite answer?

№15

Jim lived with his parents until he was twenty-one years old, and then he got a job in the office of a big factory in another town, so he left home. He found a comfortable little flat which had two rooms, a small kitchen and a bathroom, and he lived there on his own.

At first he cleaned it himself, but he did not want to have to go on doing this, so he determined to find someone else to do it instead of him. He asked a lot of his fellow workers at the factory what they did about this, and at last one of the men said, “Oh, Mrs. Roper comes and cleans my flat regularly. She washes the dishes, irons my shirts and keeps the place neat and tidy and so on. I’ll introduce you to her, if you like. She’s a charming old lady. She does her best, but she hasn’t got much energy”.

“Well, you’d better ask her to come and see me, please,” Jim answered. So the next evening Mrs. Roper came to see him, and she agreed with pleasure to come to his flat every morning for an hour.

After she had been working for Jim for two weeks, he looked at the mirror in his bedroom and thought, “That mirror looks very dusty. Mrs. Roper’s forgotten to clean it. I can write on it with my finger”. He wrote a message in the dust: “I’m coughing whenever I breathe because everything in this room is very dusty”.

He came home at 7 o’clock that evening, and when he had eaten his supper, he went into his bedroom and looked at the mirror. “That silly old woman still hasn’t cleaned it!” he said to himself. “All it needs is a cloth!”

But then he bent down and saw a bottle in front of the mirror. “I didn’t put that bottle there”. He thought. “Mrs. Roper must have left it”. He picked the bottle up and looked at it carefully.

“She’s written some words on it,” he said to himself. He read the words. They were: “Cough medicine”.

1) Where did Jim find a job?

2) What kind of flat did Jim have?

3) How did Jim get to know Mrs. Roper?

4) How did Jim let Mrs. Roper know what he thought about her work?

Text № 16

1) What kind of person was Mr. Robinson?

2) Where was George Robinson elected to at the age of 32?

3) Why did George use a speechwriter?

4) Why did George not know what was in his speech?

5) What happened to George when he burst out laughing?

6) What kind of business did he make?

7) Where should George read his speech?

Text № 17

1) How did Johnny run away the first time?

2) What did Johnny answer when the police asked him why he ran away from home?

3) What was Johnny’s favourite trick as he grew older?

4) What subject was Johnny especially good at?

5) Where did Johnny see a notice about an expedition to Brazil?

6) What kind of transport did he use?

7) Where did he travel by train?

Text № 18

1) How old is Aunt Jane?

2) Why does Aunt Jane have to travel a long distance to see a good film?

3) Why couldn’t Jane sometimes go to see herself at the cinema?

4) How did Jane get to know the director of a firm?

5) What turned out to be a big blow to Jane’s hopes?

6) What role did Aunt Jane have to play?

7) How did she rehearsh her role?

Text № 19

1) What was the name of Andy’s favourite programme?

2) What happened when Andy was leaving office?

3) Why did Andy dislike Fenton’s Garage?

4) Why did it take longer for Andy to get patrol?

5) Why did the man from Fenton’s Garage recognize Andy?

6) What time did Andy get home?

7) Why didn’t the sailor from Fenton’s Gearage call the police?

Text № 20

1) What did Patrick’s company produce among other things?

2) Why did Patrick’s company employ scientists?

3) Why did the scientist tell Patrick about Sir James White?

4) How was Patrick Reilly planning to meet Professor White?

5) Where did professor Sir James White work?

6) What did professor discover?

7) How old was Patrick’s son?

Источник

Учебный предмет «Иностранный язык»

Картинки по запросу биг бен

Выпускной экзамен по английскому 

призван оценить уровень практического владения учащимися изучаемым иностранным языком  в пределах требований, определенных образовательным  стандартом и учебной программой. 

На экзамене учащиеся  должны продемонстрировать:

  • знание лексических единиц, устойчивых словосочетаний, грамматических явлений продуктивного  и рецептивного минимумов, особенностей произношения и ритмико-интонационного оформления основных коммуникативных типов предложения, предусмотренных  учебной  программой, и умение пользоваться ими;
  • умение воспринимать и понимать  устную речь на слух при непосредственном общении  и в звукозаписи;
  • владение устной речью:   умение вести беседу, дать совет,  выразить пожелание; комментировать увиденное, услышанное, прочитанное, используя отдельные реплики и развернутые высказывания;  логично и последовательно делать сообщение и высказывать оценочные суждения относительно  услышанного, прочитанного. 

Экзамен  проводится в устной форме.

Билеты для проведения экзамена ежегодно утверждаются Министерством образования Республики Беларусь. 

Экзамен  проводится в устной форме и включает три этапа:

Первый этап: собеседование по прочитанному тексту. 

На данном  этапе  экзамена проверяются  умения чтения,  понимания прочитанного,  комментария и высказывания суждения по полученной информации, а также  умения понимания речи на слух в беседе с членами экзаменационной комиссии.

Содержание заданий:

1) Краткое определение основного содержания текста. 

Например: О чем говорится в тексте? Какова основная идея текста?

2) Извлечение из текста запрашиваемой информации.

Например: Найди в тексте ответ на вопрос «…..»  и прочти его. 

3) Извлечение  из текста отдельных фактов и значимых деталей.  Например: Что…? Где…? Когда…? Как…? Куда…?

4) Извлечение из текста фактов, описание которых требует от учащегося развернутого  аргументированного высказывания.   Например: Зачем? Почему? Отчего? Как ты думаешь….

Время на подготовку к ответу – до 20 минут.

Во время ответа  учащийся  имеет право пользоваться текстом. Задания (четыре) для подготовки к собеседованию предлагаются учащемуся  вместе с текстом. 

Пользование словарем не предусмотрено. 

Второй  этап: собеседование по прослушанному тексту.

На данном этапе  экзамена проверяются умения восприятия и понимания устной речи в звукозаписи, извлечения из прослушанного текста запрашиваемой информации и её комментария.

Содержание собеседования направлено на определение степени понимания прослушанного текста: адекватное понимание текста в целом, определение его главной идеи и  вычленение деталей.

Например:  Кто…? Что…? Где…? Когда…? Как…? Куда…? Почему…?  В связи с чем…?

Длительность звучания текста  составляет  до 1,5 минут.

Задания для подготовки к собеседованию, имена собственные, сложные для восприятия слова предлагаются учащемуся перед первым прослушиванием текста в печатной  форме.

Во время второго прослушивания разрешается делать пометки.

Время на подготовку к ответу составляет до 10 минут. 

Третий этап: беседа по ситуации общения, предлагаемой членами экзаменационной комиссии.

Задача данного этапа экзамена заключается в проверке умений монологической и диалогической речи. Содержание выполняемых учащимся заданий направлено на стимулирование его к спонтанной речи. Оно включает в себя вопросы, реакция на которые требует от учащегося использования отдельных реплик и развернутых высказываний относительно услышанного.

Учащегося   не знакомят с содержанием беседы предварительно.

Задания (пять) предъявляются ему  непосредственно во время беседы. 

Каждый этап экзамена оценивается отдельно с учетом уровня  сформированности  коммуникативной компетенции учащегося.

Итоговая экзаменационная отметка выставляется  как среднее арифметическое  отметок, полученных на  каждом этапе экзамена. 

В соответствии с Правилами, если учащийся не ответил по билету, экзаменационная комиссия по его просьбе может разрешить ответить по другому билету. При этом в протокол выпускного экзамена вносится соответствующая запись. Вопрос о снижении отметки учащемуся в этом случае решает экзаменационная комиссия. 

Одновременно  в аудитории может находиться до четырех учащихся. 

Последовательность этапов экзамена строго не регламентируется, а определяется  экзаменационной комиссией. 

Отметки, полученные учащимися на экзамене, объявляются учащимся после его окончания. 

Материалы для подготовки к обязательному выпускному экзамену по английскому языку.doc (194,6 КБ)

Полезные выражения в трудных ситуациях.docx (15,1 КБ) 

Полезные интернет.docx (19,5 КБ) 

РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ УЧАЩИМСЯ ПО ПОДГОТОВКЕ И СДАЧЕ ВЫПУСКНОГО ЭКЗАМЕНА ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ.docx (25,0 КБ) 

Советы учащимся по подготовке к экзамену по иностранному языку.docx (16,0 КБ) 

Список полезных выражений для подготовки устного высказывания по ситуации.docx (14,6 КБ) 

Требования к оценке ответа.docx (16,1 КБ)

Источник

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