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April 12 2011, 18:40
Geologists have shown that for about 80 percent of the past 2.5 million years, ice-age conditions have prevailed on the Earth’s surface. During the past one million years, increased glacial conditions have run in cycles of approximately 100,000 years.
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles* as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts* on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation.
These Milankovitch insolation cycles were the dominant theory in ice-age research for much of the twentieth century despite the fact that the match between periods of peak insolation and most intense glaciation were not exact. For example, a cycle of 400,000 years predicted by the Milankovitch theory has never shown up in the climate records obtained through the study of microfossils deposited on the sea floor. Also, recent analysis has shown that the insolation theory predicts peaks of sunlight at intervals of 95,000 and 125,000 years. Climatological data does not support this predicted sunlight peaking. Other damaging evidence was the indication of a precisely measured sudden rise in temperature at a water-filled cave in Nevada, which preceded the increase in solar radiation that was supposed to cause it.
These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists, Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet, thus plunging it into regular cold periods.
The advantage of this theory is that it is not confronted with several of the problems associated with the Milankovitch theory. In particular, the new theory fits well with the analysis of ocean sediments taken from eight locations around the world. This analysis yielded data clearly showing the peak of the last several ice ages with a period of 100,000 years and corresponding to the periods when the Earth’s oscillating inclination takes it through clouds of extraterrestrial debris.
However, many researchers in this field are not yet persuaded by the inclination hypothesis. The main problem is that the amount of dust that falls to the ground when the Earth travels through space debris is relatively small — not enough to produce radical climate changes. Volcanic eruptions, for example, release much greater amounts of ash and dust and have relatively little effect on climate. Supporters have countered that the by-products created by the dust as it vaporizes on entering the atmosphere cause subtle changes to the energy levels. Nevertheless, the necessary physical proof has yet to be found to convince the skeptics.
Questions
1.The word » prevailed» in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. ruled
B. existed
C. survived
D. triumphed
2. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the factors that contribute to
glaciation?
A. They affect the Earth’s spin,
B. They are geologically recent.
C. Only three factors relate to levels of sunlight.
D. Other factors than those relating to the sunlight affect ice buildup.
3. The phrase » these eccentricities» in the passage refers to all of the following EXCEPT
A. the various movements of the Earth as it spins
B. trie degree of change in the Earth’s tilt over time
C. tne pattern of insolation matching the Earth’s movement
D. the changing distance to the sun during the Earth’s elliptical orbit
4. Scientists accepted the Milankovitch theory even though
A. the peaks of sunlight occurred at intervals of 95,000 and 125.000 years
B. the peaks of insolation and intense glaciation did not match
C. there were climate records of a 400.000-year cycle
D there were microfossil deposits on the sea floor
5. In paragraph 4. why does the author suggest the image of a flat plane?
A. To help the reader visualize the positions and movements of the heavenly bodies
B. To demonstrate to the reader how the Earth orbits the sun
C. To support the argument that the orbital inclination increases tilting
D To show how the Milankovitch theory doesn’t explain the cyclical changes in climate
6. The word in the passage refers to
A. such debris
B. solar energy
C. the surface
D. our planet
7. In paragraph 4, the author explains that
A. Milankovitch did not know about the orbital inclination of the Earth
B. glaciation occurs when the orbital inclination has entered a new cycle
C. the Earth always travels through clouds of debris after moving out of the plane by a few degrees
D. the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface causes the changes of temperature
8. What problem in the Milankovitch theory was mentioned as being explained by the Muller and MacDonald theory?
A. The climate records obtained by studying microfossil deposits not matching his predicted cycle
B. The irregularities of the Earth’s movements through orbital inclinations not following any pattern
C. The Earth’s spin wobbling in relation to the Earth’s oscillating inclination
D. The peak in the ice ages occurring at intervals between 95,000 and 125,000 years instead of 400,000
9.The word «persuaded» closest in the passage is meaning to
A. convinced
B. discouraged
C. affected
D. challenged
10. What problem is associated with the Muller and MacDonald theory?
A. The amount of debris that is released from volcanoes is proportional to the amount of interstellar dust.
B. The amount of ash from volcanoes and space dust that vaporizes in the atmosphere is too small.
C. The amount of dust entering the atmosphere is less than the amount of ash and dust released by volcanoes.
D. The by-products created by vaporized space dust cause relevant changes to the energy levels.
In this section, you will read three passages and answer reading comprehension questions about each passage. Most questions are worth one point, but the last question in each set is worth more than one point. The directions indicate how many points you may receive.
You have 60 minutes to read all of the passages and answer the questions. Some passages include a word or phrase followed by an asterisk (*). Go to the bottom of the page to see a definition or an explanation of these words or phrases.
Causes of Ice Ages
Geologists have shown that for about 80 percent of the past 2.5 million years, ice-age conditions have prevailed on the Earth’s surface. During the past one million years, increased glacial conditions have run in cycles of approximately 100,000 years.
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles* as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts* on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation.
These Milankovitch insolation cycles were the dominant theory in ice-age research for much of the twentieth century despite the fact that the match between periods of peak insolation and most intense glaciation were not exact. For example, a cycle of 400,000 years predicted by the Milankovitch theory has never shown up in the climate records obtained through the study of microfossils deposited on the sea floor. Also, recent analysis has shown that the insolation theory predicts peaks of sunlight at intervals of 95,000 and 125,000 years. Climatological data does not support this predicted sunlight peaking. Other damaging evidence was the indication of a precisely measured sudden rise in temperature at a water-filled cave in Nevada, which preceded the increase in solar radiation that was supposed to cause it.
These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists, Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet, thus plunging it into regular cold periods.
The advantage of this theory is that it is not confronted with several of the problems associated with the Milankovitch theory. In particular, the new theory fits well with the analysis of ocean sediments taken from eight locations around the world. This analysis yielded data clearly showing the peak of the last several ice ages with a period of 100,000 years and corresponding to the periods when the Earth’s oscillating inclination takes it through clouds of extraterrestrial debris.
However, many researchers in this field are not yet persuaded by the inclination hypothesis. The main problem is that the amount of dust that falls to the ground when the Earth travels through space debris is relatively small — not enough to produce radical climate changes. Volcanic eruptions, for example, release much greater amounts of ash and dust and have relatively little effect on climate. Supporters have countered that the by-products created by the dust as it vaporizes on entering the atmosphere cause subtle changes to the energy levels. Nevertheless, the necessary physical proof has yet to be found to convince the skeptics.
*wobble: to shake or move from side to side
*tilt: to be in a sloping position
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1. The word «prevaied» in the passage is closest in meaning to
ruled |
Geologists have shown that for about 80 percent of the past 2.5 million years, ice-age conditions have prevailed on the Earth’s surface. During the past one million years, increased glacial conditions have run in cycles of approximately 100,000 years. |
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2. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the factors that contribute to glaciation?
They affect the Earth’s spin. Paragraph 2 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation. |
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3. The phrase «these eccentricities» in the passage refers to all of the following EXCEPT
the various movements of the Earth as it spins |
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation. |
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4. Scientists accepted the Milankovitch theory even though
the peaks of sunlight occurred at intervals of 95.000 and 125.000 years |
[Refer to the full passage] |
|
5. In paragraph 4, why does the author suggest the image of a flat plane?
To help the reader visualize the positions and movements of the heavenly bodies Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow ->. |
-> These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists. Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation. the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet, thus plunging it into regular cold periods. |
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6. The word «it» in the passage refers to
such debris |
These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists. Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet. thus plunging it into regular cold periods. |
|
7. In paragraph 4, the author explains that
Milankovitch did not know about the orbital inclination of the Earth Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists. Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet. thus plunging it into regular cold periods. |
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8. What problem in the Milankovitch theory was mentioned as being explained by the Muller and MacDonald theory?
The climate records obtained by studying microfossil deposits not matching his predicted cycle |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
|
9. The word «persuaded» in the passage is closest in meaning to
convinced |
However, many researchers in this field are not yet persuaded by the inclination hypothesis. The main problem is that the amount of dust that falls to the ground when the Earth travels through space debris is relatively small -not enough to produce radical climate changes. Volcanic eruptions, for example, release much greater amounts of ash and dust and have relatively little effect on climate. Supporters have countered that the by-products created by the dust as it vaporizes on entering the atmosphere cause subtle changes to the energy levels. Nevertheless, the necessary physical proof has yet to be found to convince the skeptics. |
|
10. What problem is associated with the Muller and MacDonald theory?
The amount of debris that is released from volcanoes is proportional to the amount of interstellar dust. |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
|
11. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
When the Earth is at its furthest from the sun, less sunlight reaches the surface. Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square that shows where the sentence should be added. |
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. [A] The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First. the planet wobbles as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. [B] Furthermore, the Earth tilts on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. [C] Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. [D] A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation. |
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12. Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the flaws in the ice-age theories to which they relate. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points.
Write the letters of the answer choices in the spaces where they belong. |
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Answer Choices
A) Data of climate records not coinciding with predicted intervals of sunlight |
Flaws in the Milankovitch Cycles Theory * * * * Flaws in the Muller and MacDonald Theory * * * |
Questions 13-26
Bird Migration
The phenomenon of seasonal bird migration has been known about for thousands of years, but it is still not fully understood by scientists. Not all birds migrate, but generally speaking the more northerly the breeding ground, the more likely is it that a species will migrate south for the winter. The main reason for this annual shifting of residence is that during the northern winters food becomes scarce and the cold temperatures make survival difficult. Some species are well adapted to these harsh conditions, but for those that aren’t, moving south to warmer conditions is advantageous.
Changes in the weather can trigger the start of the journey south, although birds in the Northern Hemisphere seem to know when it is time to migrate south before the winter. In some species at least, the changes in the length of the day cause glands in the birds’ bodies to secrete hormones that produce other changes, which ready the birds for the long flight south. At this time fat starts to accumulate under the skin, and this provides a store of energy for the long flight when they will be expending more calories flying than they can obtain during their brief rest stops.
In fact, bird-migration patterns are more complex than the simple pattern implied above. 3irds that breed in the Southern Hemisphere migrate north to wintering grounds. Other birds travel on an approximately east-west path since milder climates can often be found n coastal areas of continental regions. Some birds find conditions more suitable at lower altitudes in a mountainous region and so migrate to lower levels in winter.
Perhaps the most mysterious and as yet not totally understood aspect of bird migration is how birds can navigate such long distances and arrive so precisely at their destination. Various possibilities exist. The most obvious explanation is that they learn the topographic* features of their route. However, it is not feasible that this method could be used for crossing larger stretches of water or very long trips across whole continents. Another possible explanation is that some birds may use magnetic fields. Scientists have actually detected tiny crystals of magnetite in the olfactory* tract of some species, and homing pigeons have been shown to follow magnetic field lines of the Earth.
A further possibility is that birds can detect the polarization patterns in sunlight. Some light waves from the sun are absorbed in the atmosphere, and some pass through. The resulting pattern of light waves forms a large bowtie-shaped image in the sky. The image has fuzzy ends and is sometimes known as Haidinger’s brush after the discoverer of the effect. The mage is oriented in a north and south direction and is visible at sunset. Although birds may not see this shape, they can discern gradations of polarization, which give them a kind of compass for determining directions.
Scientists believe that some birds navigate by use of star positions; this has been established with at least one species. In a series of studies, caged birds were subjected to the projection of the nighttime Northern Hemisphere inside a planetarium. All stars rotate around Polaris, the pole star, and this movement seemed to give the birds the information they needed to orientate themselves in the correct direction. However, some recent research contradicts this. Perhaps it is not the lack of movement of the pole star but rather the constellation patterns that guide them. It has also been found that when fewer stars were visible on the planetarium ceiling, the birds’ sense of direction became poorer. And this, too. implies that the general star pattern does have some bearing on orientation.
The current state of research suggests that all of the above-mentioned methods probably nave an influence on bird migration. Different species use one, some, or even all methods at different times and in various situations.
*topographic: relating to the natural features of land
*olfactory: connected with the sense of smell
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13. In paragraph 1, it is understood that some birds don’t migrate south in the winter because they
already live in warmer conditions Paragraph 1 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> The phenomenon of seasonal bird migration has been known about for thousands of years, but it is still not fully understood by scientists. Not all birds migrate, but generally speaking the more northerly the breeding ground, the more likely is it that a species will migrate south for the winter. The main reason for this annual shifting of residence is that during the northern winters food becomes scarce and the cold temperatures make survival difficult. Some species are well adapted to these harsh conditions, but for those that aren’t, moving south to warmer conditions is advantageous. |
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14. The word «those» in the passage refers to
northern winters |
The phenomenon of seasonal bird migration has been known about for thousands of years, but it is still not fully understood by scientists. Not all birds migrate, but generally speaking the more northerly the breeding ground, the more likely is it that a species will migrate south for the winter. The main reason for this annual shifting of residence is that during the northern winters food becomes scarce and the cold temperatures make survival difficult. Some species are well adapted to these harsh conditions, but for those that aren’t, moving south to warmer conditions is advantageous. |
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15. According to paragraph 2, what are the results of changes in the weather?
The change in the length of the day Paragraph 2 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> Changes in the weather can trigger the start of the journey south, although birds in the Northern Hemisphere seem to know when it is time to migrate south before the winter. In some species at least, the changes in the length of the day cause glands in the birds’ bodies to secrete hormones that produce other changes, which ready the birds for the long flight south. At this time fat starts to accumulate under the skin, and this provides a store of energy for the long flight when they will be expending more calories flying than they can obtain during their brief rest stops. |
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16. The word «accumulate» in the passage is closest in meaning to
build up |
Changes in the weather can trigger the start of the journey south, although birds in the Northern Hemisphere seem to know when it is time to migrate south before the winter. In some species at least, the changes in the length of the day cause glands in the birds’ bodies to secrete hormones that produce other changes, which ready the birds for the long flight south. At this time fat starts to accumulate under the skin, and this provides a store of energy for the long flight when they will be expending more calories flying than they can obtain during their brief rest stops. |
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17. All of the bird migration patterns are mentioned in the passage EXCEPT
the migration north from the Southern Hemisphere |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
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18. The word «precisely» in the passage is closest in meaning to
finally |
Perhaps the most mysterious and as yet not totally understood aspect of bird migration is how birds can navigate such long distances and arrive so precisely at their destination. Various possibilities exist. The most obvious explanation is that they learn the topographic features of their route. However, it is not feasible that this method could be used for crossing larger stretches of water or very long trips across whole continents. Another possible explanation is that some birds may use magnetic fields. Scientists have actually detected tiny crystals of magnetite in the olfactory tract of some species, and homing pigeons have been shown to follow magnetic field lines of the Earth. |
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19. It can be inferred that polarization patterns
absorb sunlight |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
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20. Why does the author mention Haidinger’s brush?
To understand the phenomenon |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
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21. The word «subjected» in the passage is closest in meaning to
exposed |
Scientists believe that some birds navigate by use of star positions; this has been established with at least one species. In a series of studies, caged birds were subjected to the projection of the nighttime Northern Hemisphere inside a planetarium. All stars rotate around Polaris, the pole star, and this movement seemed to give the birds the information they needed to orientate themselves in the correct direction. However, some recent research contradicts this. Perhaps it is not the lack of movement of the pole star but rather the constellation patterns that guide them. It has also been found that when fewer stars were visible on the planetarium ceiling, the birds’ sense of direction became poorer. And this, too, implies that the general star pattern does have some bearing on orientation. |
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22. According to paragraph 6, how do some birds navigate during the night?
By using a projection of the star positions Paragraph 6 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> Scientists believe that some birds navigate by use of star positions; this has been established with at least one species. In a series of studies, caged birds were subjected to the projection of the nighttime Northern Hemisphere inside a planetarium. All stars rotate around Polaris, the pole star, and this movement seemed to give the birds the information they needed to orientate themselves in the correct direction. However, some recent research contradicts this. Perhaps it is not the lack of movement of the pole star but rather the constellation patterns that guide them. It has also been found that when fewer stars were visible on the planetarium ceiling, the birds’ sense of direction became poorer. And this, too, implies that the general star pattern does have some bearing on orientation. |
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23. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
Birds needing to orientate themselves in the right direction seemed to use the information they get from the stars that rotate around Polaris. |
Scientists believe that some birds navigate by use of star positions; this has been established with at least one species. In a series of studies, caged birds were subjected to the projection of the nighttime Northern Hemisphere inside a planetarium. All stars rotate around Polaris, the pole star. and this movement seemed to give the birds the information they needed to orientate themselves in the correct direction. However, some recent research contradicts this. Perhaps it is not the lack of movement of the pole star but rather the constellation patterns that guide them. It has also been found that when fewer stars were visible on the planetarium ceiling, the birds’ sense of direction became poorer. And this, too, implies that the general star pattern does have some bearing on orientation. |
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24. The word «this» in the passage refers to
The number of stars that were visible |
Scientists believe that some birds navigate by use of star positions; this has been established with at least one species. In a series of studies, caged birds were subjected to the projection of the nighttime Northern Hemisphere inside a planetarium. All stars rotate around Polaris, the pole star. and this movement seemed to give the birds the information they needed to orientate themselves in the correct direction. However, some recent research contradicts this. Perhaps it is not the lack of movement of the pole star but rather the constellation patterns that guide them. It has also been found that when fewer stars were visible on the planetarium ceiling, the birds’ sense of direction became poorer. And this, too, implies that the general star pattern does have some bearing on orientation. |
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25. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
Over short distances the birds could recognize particular landscapes such as river valleys and shapes of hills. Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square that shows where the sentence should be added. |
Perhaps the most mysterious and as yet not totally understood aspect of bird migration is how birds can navigate such long distances and arrive so precisely at their destination. Various possibilities exist. [A] The most obvious explanation is that they learn the topographic features of their route. [B] However, it is not feasible that this method could be used for crossing larger stretches of water or very long trips across whole continents. [C] Another possible explanation is that some birds may use magnetic fields. [D] Scientists have actually detected tiny crystals of magnetite in the olfactory tract of some species, and homing pigeons have been shown to follow magnetic field lines of the Earth. |
Write the tetters of the answer choices in the spaces where they belong.
Refer to the full passage.
Scientists have proposed several methods that birds use for orientating themselves during their seasonal migrations.
Answer Choices
A) Birds not only migrate north or south depending on which hemisphere they live in, but they also migrate along coastal regions or in and out of mountainous areas.
B) Birds’ ability to detect gradations of polarization patterns in sunlight could give them a way for determining directions.
C) Changes in both the weather and the length of day can cause the birds’ bodies to make physical changes to prepare them for the long flights.
D) The principal reason for birds to migrate is that most bird species are not adapted to the harsh winter conditions and the scarcity of food during that season.
E) The star patterns and the way the stars rotate around the fixed position of the pole star could give birds the direction in which to navigate.
F) Birds may use their knowledge of the features of the landscape, although this seems unlikely given the distances that birds migrate.
Questions 27-39
Radon
Radon is a radioactive gas that is invisible and odorless. It forms during the decay of uranium-238, and in decaying, itself produces solid heavy metal radioactive particles of polonium, lead, and bismuth. The parent element, uranium, is distributed in rocks and soils in -any regions of the world, although usually in negligible* amounts. However, concentrations of this element occur in certain rocks, and under certain conditions it is dissolved by underground water and carried over great distances before seeping into other rocks and soils.
Since radon is a gas, it can move from the ground into the air, where it is dispersed by the winds. If it infiltrates buildings, however, it can build up over time and lead to serious health problems. In fact, the radon itself is chemically inert and so does not enter into chemical reactions with other substances. It is readily dissolved in blood and circulates through the body until it is expelled, usually before it has had time to decay. The health problems associated with radon activity arise from the radioactive products of its disintegration. mentioned above.
The products of the decay process, especially polonium-218 and polonium-214, emit radiation, which kills or damages living cells, causing genetic mutations and cancer. These radon progeny are not dispersed harmlessly like radon itself but accumulate as the radon decays. Outside the body, these solid materials can attach themselves to dust particles and surfaces throughout a building and then be inhaled. The decay products can also stick to tobacco leaves during growth and then enter the body when the tobacco is smoked. Inside the body these dangerous by-products of radon become lodged in lung tissue and the bronchial tubes. As these decay, they emit alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. Of these, the alpha particles can do the most damage since they are the bulkiest of the three and therefore cannot penetrate very far into living tissue. Because of this relative immobility, concentrations of the particle form and damage cells in the immediate area. Beta particles and gamma rays are less dangerous since they travel further and are less concentrated in the tissues.
The primary way that radon penetrates buildings is through foundations. It enters through cracks in basement floors, drains, loose-fitting pipes, and exposed soil areas. Radon also finds its way into water, although if the water is exposed to the atmosphere or agitated, the radon disperses into the air. Because of this, concentrations of this uranium daughter are not high in rivers, but water drawn from underground sources into homes can have elevated levels.
The chief health risk from inhaling radon or its daughter products is lung cancer. Scientists have concluded that exposure to this carcinogen is the second leading cause of this disease in the United States. Major scientific organizations believe it contributes to approximately 12 percent of the incidence in the United States alone. It is true that some research has cast doubt on the likelihood of residential radon accumulations contributing to cancer rates. Other larger scale studies contradict the neutral findings. For example, a recent study of 68,000 underground miners who were exposed to high levels of radon shows that they are five times more likely to die of lung cancer than the general population. Smokers, whose incidence of lung cancer is significantly higher than the nonsmoking population, are even more at risk if they are exposed to high levels of radon.
It is now possible to have buildings tested for radon accumulation. In an average home, this is about 1.3 picocuries* per liter, which is considered an acceptable although not a totally safe level. If these levels are above 4 picocuries per liter of air, then homeowners are advised to reduce the amount seeping into the living space. This can be achieved through various means including concrete sealing and the installation of active ventilation systems. It is not possible to completely eradicate traces of radon since the natural outdoors level averages 0.4 picocuries per liter, but minimizing the amount is a prudent preventative measure.
*negligible: too small to be important
*picocurie: a level of radiation activity
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27. The phrase «this element» in the passage refers to
lead |
Radon is a radioactive gas that is invisible and odorless. It forms during the decay of uranium-238, and in decaying. itself produces solid heavy metal radioactive particles of polonium, lead, and bismuth. The parent element, uranium, is distributed in rocks and soils in many regions of the world, although usually in negligible amounts. However, concentrations of this element occur in certain rocks, and under certain conditions it is dissolved by underground water and carried over great distances before seeping into other rocks and soils. |
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28. The word «seeping» in the passage is closest in meaning to
leaking |
Radon is a radioactive gas that is invisible and odorless. It forms during the decay of uranium-238, and in decaying, itself produces solid heavy metal radioactive particles of polonium, lead, and bismuth. The parent element, uranium, is distributed in rocks and soils in many regions of the world, although usually in negligible amounts. However, concentrations of this element occur in certain rocks, and under certain conditions it is dissolved by underground water and carried over great distances before seeping into other rocks and soils. |
|
29. In paragraph 2, what can be inferred about the relationship of radon and health problems?
The gas has to have time to decay in order to cause health problems. Paragraph 2 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> Since radon is a gas, it can move from the ground into the air, where it is dispersed by the winds. If it infiltrates buildings, however, it can build up over time and lead to serious health problems. In fact, the radon itself is chemically inert and so does not enter into chemical reactions with other substances. It is readily dissolved in blood and circulates through the body until it is expelled, usually before it has had time to decay. The health problems associated with radon activity arise from the radioactive products of its disintegration, mentioned above. |
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30. The word «disintegration» in the passage is closest in meaning to
breakdown |
Since radon is a gas, it can move from the ground into the air, where it is dispersed by the winds. If it infiltrates buildings, however, it can build up over time and lead to serious health problems. In fact, the radon itself is chemically inert and so does not enter into chemical reactions with other substances. It is readily dissolved in blood and circulates through the body until it is expelled, usually before it has had time to decay. The health problems associated with radon activity arise from the radioactive products of its disintegration, mentioned above. |
|
31. Health problems associated with radon are caused by
radioactive uranium |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
|
32. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
Unlike the radon, which is scattered without danger, its products accumulate as the radon disintegrates. |
The products of the decay process, especially polonium-218 and polonium-214, emit radiation, which kills or damages living cells, causing genetic mutations and cancer. These radon progeny are not dispersed harmlessly like radon itself but accumulate as the radon decays. Outside the body, these solid materials can attach themselves to dust particles and surfaces throughout a building and then be inhaled. The decay products can also stick to tobacco leaves during growth and then enter the body when the tobacco is smoked. Inside the body these dangerous by-products of radon become lodged in lung tissue and the bronchial tubes. As these decay, they emit alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. Of these, the alpha particles can do the most damage since they are the bulkiest of the three and therefore cannot penetrate very far into living tissue. Because of this relative immobility. concentrations of the particle form and damage cells in the immediate area. Beta particles and gamma rays are less dangerous since they travel further and are less concentrated in the tissues. |
|
33. According to paragraph 3, some products of decay cause damage because they
emit gamma rays Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> The products of the decay process, especially polonium-218 and polonium-214, emit radiation, which kills or damages living cells, causing genetic mutations and cancer. These radon progeny are not dispersed harmlessly like radon itself but accumulate as the radon decays. Outside the body, these solid materials can attach themselves to dust particles and surfaces throughout a building and then be inhaled. The decay products can also stick to tobacco leaves during growth and then enter the body when the tobacco is smoked. Inside the body these dangerous by-products of radon become lodged in lung tissue and the bronchial tubes. As these decay, they emit alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. Of these, the alpha particles can do the most damage since they are the bulkiest of the three and therefore cannot penetrate very far into living tissue. Because of this relative immobility, concentrations of the particle form and damage cells in the immediate area. Beta particles and gamma rays are less dangerous since they travel further and are less concentrated in the tissues. |
|
34. The phrase «uranium daughter» in the passage refers to
water |
The primary way that radon penetrates buildings is through foundations. It enters through cracks in basement floors, drains, loose-fitting pipes, and exposed soil areas. Radon also finds its way into water, although if the water is exposed to the atmosphere or agitated, the radon disperses into the air. Because of this, concentrations of this uranium daughter are not high in rivers, but water drawn from underground sources into homes can have elevated levels. |
|
35. According to the passage, all of the following are true about radon EXCEPT
it is invisible |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
|
36. It can be understood from paragraph 6 that
reducing the amount of radon in your home is pointless because of the amount of radon outside Paragraph 6 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
->It is now possible to have buildings tested for radon accumulation. In an average home, this is about 1.3 picocuries per liter, which is considered an acceptable although not a totally safe level. If these levels are above 4 picocuries per liter of air, then homeowners are advised to reduce the amount seeping into the living space. This can be achieved through various means including concrete sealing and the installation of active ventilation systems. It is not possible to completely eradicate traces of radon since the natural outdoors level averages 0.4 picocuries per liter, but minimizing the amount is a prudent preventative measure. |
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37. The word «prudent» in the passage is closest in meaning to
sensible |
It is now possible to have buildings tested for radon accumulation. In an average home, this is about 1.3 picocuries per liter, which is considered an acceptable although not a totally safe level. If these levels are above 4 picocuries per liter of air, then homeowners are advised to reduce the amount seeping into the living space. This can be achieved through various means including concrete sealing and the installation of active ventilation systems. It is not possible to completely eradicate traces of radon since the natural outdoors level averages 0.4 picocuries per liter, but minimizing the amount is a prudent preventative measure. |
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38. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
But this research has been criticized for being based on too few subjects. Where would the sentence best fit? |
The chief health risk from inhaling radon or its daughter products is lung cancer. [A] Scientists have concluded that exposure to this carcinogen is the second leading cause of this disease in the United States. [B] Major scientific organizations believe it contributes to approximately 12 percent of the incidence in the United States alone. It is true that some research has cast doubt on the likelihood of residential radon accumulations contributing to cancer rates. [C] Other larger scale studies contradict the neutral findings. For example, a recent study of 68.000 underground miners who were exposed to high levels of radon shows that they are five times more likely to die of lung cancer than the general population. [D] Smokers, whose incidence of lung cancer is significantly higher than the nonsmoking population, are even more at risk if they are exposed to high levels of radon. |
Write the letters of the answer choices in the spaces where they belong.
Refer to the full passage.
Radon can seep into a building, where its decay products can lead to health problems.
Answer Choices
A) Although radon can enter a building in many different ways, it also escapes through cracks in the foundations.
B) Concentrations of the radon by-products attach themselves to particles in the air inside buildings and are breathed into the lungs.
C) People who smoke or work in mines are at greater risks of getting lung cancer that is related to alpha particles than those who work in buildings.
D) The by-product alpha particles are too heavy to disperse through the tissues, so they accumulate in the lungs where they kill or damage lung cells.
E) Radon does not cause lung cancer because it is chemically inert and therefore readily dissolves in the blood, where it eventually is expelled from the body.
F) Preventative measures can be taken to reduce the amount of exposure to radon in living spaces, but it is not possible to completely eliminate the gas from the atmosphere.
Causes of Ice Ages
Geologists have shown that for about 80 percent of the past 2.5 million years, ice-age conditions have prevailed on the Earth’s surface. During the past one million years, increased glacial conditions have run in cycles of approximately 100,000 years.
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles* as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts* on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation.
These Milankovitch insolation cycles were the dominant theory in ice-age research for much of the twentieth century despite the fact that the match between periods of peak insolation and most intense glaciation were not exact. For example, a cycle of 400,000 years predicted by the Milankovitch theory has never shown up in the climate records obtained through the study of microfossils deposited on the sea floor. Also, recent analysis has shown that the insolation theory predicts peaks of sunlight at intervals of 95,000 and 125,000 years. Climatological data does not support this predicted sunlight peaking. Other damaging evidence was the indication of a precisely measured sudden rise in temperature at a water-filled cave in Nevada, which preceded the increase in solar radiation that was supposed to cause it.
These and other problems
with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists, Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet, thus plunging it into regular cold periods.
The advantage of this theory is that it is not confronted with several of the problems associated with the Milankovitch theory. In particular, the new theory fits well with the analysis of ocean sediments taken from eight locations around the world. This analysis yielded data clearly showing the peak of the last several ice ages with a period of 100,000 years and corresponding to the periods when the Earth’s oscillating inclination takes it through clouds of extraterrestrial debris.
However, many researchers in this field are not yet persuaded by the inclination hypothesis.
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Вилли Лей
Cause of the Ice Age
Статья, 1952 год
Язык написания: английский
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10
10
Установите соответствие тем 1 — 8 текстам A — G. Занесите свои ответы в соответствующее поле справа. Используйте каждую цифру только один раз. В задании одна тема лишняя.
1. То take from home
2. Evening drinks
3. Food for relaxation
4. Skipping the meal
5. Foreign cuisine
6. Unusual meals
7. Traditional morning meal
8. Take it ready to eat
A. If you go to a hotel in Britain and ask for a typical English breakfast, you will probably get bacon and eggs, sausage, mushrooms, baked beans, tea and toast. When porridge juice are offered as well, the meal is sometimes advertised as a «full Engilsh breakfast». Many years ago people couldn’t imagine their breakfast without a bowl of cerea or usual bacon and eggs.
B. But how many people in England actually eat an English breakfast? Only one person in ten. One in five people say all they have for breakfast is a cup of coffee, and many children go to school without eating anything. That is happening because people lack time. They are always in a hurry and prefer to choose something light and ready-made, especially in the morning.
C. If in Britain you stay with a family, you will almost certainly be given a «packed lunch» to eat for your midday meal. Some factories and schools have canteens where a packed lunch is the most common thing to eat. A packed lunch usually consists of some sandwiches, a packet of crisps, an apple, and a can of something to drink, for example, Coca-Cola. The quality of the packed lunch can vary.
D. Fish and chips is the classic English takeaway food. It is usually bought ready cooked at special shops — fish and chip shops, or «chippies» as they are sometimes called. This takeaway food is wrapped in paper to be eaten at home or outside. If you go to a fish and chip shop, you’ll be asked if you want salt and vinegar to be sprinkled over your chips. Be careful because sometimes they give you too much.
E. If you have trouble getting off to sleep, don’t panic. There are plenty of healthy, low fat alternatives to pills to help you nod off. Why not try a glass of warm skimmed milk, or even a cup of camomile tea? These natural and low-fat drinks will help you to get asleep. They can also relax you after a difficult day.
F. Every British town has Indian or Chinese restaurants. There are more Chinese takeaways than there are fish and chips shops in the UK. But most people are eating curry Curry is now Britain’s most popular meal because the majority of British people like spicy food. But British people like food from other countries, too. They say it allows them to understand other cultures better.
G. Eating carbohydrate-rich foods like bread, cereal, rice and pasta causes the production of serotonin, which makes us feel calm. Fruit and vegetables also set off the production of this chemical. Milk and cheese are also useful. The next time you feel stressed, try a little piece of bread and a glass of milk and you’ll feel better in no time.
11
11
Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски A-F частями предложений, обозначенными цифрами 1-7. Одна из частей в списке лишняя.
1. depending on the survey and the time of year
2. rotating disk with holes arranged in a spiral pattern
3. could be measured in the thousands
4. could capture moving images
5. funding a number of research programmes
6. transmitting images 16 years before
7. had lived in a house without electricity
Television
Few inventions have had as much effect on contemporary society, especially American society, as television. Before 1947 the number of U.S. homes with television sets A ______ . By the late 1990s, 98 percent of U.S. homes had at least one television set, and those sets were on for an average of more than seven hours a day. The typical American spends (B ______ ) from two-and-a-half to almost five hours a day watching television.
The invention of TV is not credited to one single person. Vladimir Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth both played instrumental roles. Electronic television was first successfully demonstrated in San Francisco on Sept. 7, 1927. The system was designed by Philo Taylor Farnsworth, a 21-year-old inventor who C ______ until he was 14. While still in high school, Farnsworth had begun to think of a system that D ______ in a form that could be coded onto radio waves and then transformed back into a picture on a screen. Boris Rosing and Vladimir Zvorykin in Russia had conducted some experiments in E ______ Farnsworth’s first success.
Also, a mechanical television system, which scanned images using a F ______ , had been demonstrated by John Logic Baird in England and Charles Francis Jenkins in the United States earlier in the 1920s. However, Farnsworth’s invention and Vladimir Zvorykin’s electronic TV system are the direct ancestors of modern television.
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания 12—18, обводя цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую номеру выбранного вами варианта ответа.
Lesson in humility
I was nine when this started. That was in 1964, the year my mother left us. Chess led me to Horatio — chess and my father and my absent mother and the fact that on that day, I broke the rule about not showing what you feel. My form-master of that year at the private day-school I went to was a chess enthusiast. He explained the rules to us, he encouraged us to play. He was kind to me and I admired him, more than admired: I wanted to be where he was. I suppose I was more than usually responsive to kindness just at that time. To please him I tried hard to be good at chess and I discovered that I was good. I had a natural talent, the master said.
I joined the school chess club. I took part in tournaments and distinguished myself. Shining at few things, for a brief season I shone at chess. I studied the game, I read the accounts of historic encounters, the ploys of long-dead masters, and I played them out alone. I would set out the pieces at random, then sweep them off and try to replace them from memory. At night, I would picture the chess board, go through the moves of some legendary end-game and find consolation.
A colleague of my father was there one Sunday afternoon — my father was a senior official at the Treasury. «Your father tells me you are quite a chess-player.” On his reddish face an indulgent look. «At least by his own report,” my father said with a sarcastic smile. He seemed to suggest I had boasted. Perhaps I had. “Not up to your level, Henry, not yet.» Henry, Harry, Humphrey. A chessplayer ot note. Fancy a game, young man?
We played and I won. He still had half his pieces on the board when l checkmated him. I leasure in victory, expectation of praise — face and voice were not yet practiced enough, I suppose I showed my feelings too clearly. My father looked at me, but uttered no word. He went out, came back with a book from his study, brought it over for me to see. “Look here,” he said, the colleague meanwhile looking on. “Look at these people here.”
He had opened the book roughly in the middle. There were two faces, one on either side: William Pitt the Younger and Horatio Nelson. Neither name meant anything to me at the time. Later, ot course, I knew them tor close contemporaries -Horatio was a year older and died three months earlier.
“Take a good look,” my father said. “These two men saved our country, they had reason to be pleased with themselves.”
He meant it for my benefit or so I like to think. He did not want me to be jubilant in victory, to overrate small achievements. He wanted to inspire me with worthy ambitions. But in his mannei and tone I sensed displeasure; he was not pleased at my success, it had disturbed his sense of the natural order.
My interest in chess did not long survive that day, the lesson in humility proved the death-blow to it. I continued to play during what was left of the term, but my heart was not in it, I lost the appetite for victory, my game fell off. In the autumn, Monty and I were sent away to boarding school and I never played chess again.
12
12
The narrator started playing chess because of the encouragement from …
1. his father.
2. his mother.
3. his teacher.
4. Horatio.
13
13
In paragraph 2 the words “shining at few things” mean that the boy …
1. did not have many achievements.
2. won a few tournaments.
3. perfected his chess skills.
4. devoted himself to many activities.
14
14
The father spoke about his son’s chess talent …
1. enthusiastically.
2. boastfully.
3. happily.
4. ironically.
15
15
The father was displeased with his son because …
1. his colleague was hurt by the defeat.
2. the boy couldn’t hide his pleasure.
3. he had hoped for his loss.
4. the boy broke the rules of the game.
16
16
What did the boy think about William Pitt and Horatio Nelson?
1. They were models for the boy.
2. He didn’t want to be like them.
3. He knew nothing about them at the time.
4. He liked William Pitt but disposed Horatio Nelson.
17
17
The father’s words were meant to …
1. teach his son some history.
2. show his son how wrong he was.
3. show his son how to celebrate a victory.
4. teach his son to evaluate one’s achievements.
18
18
The boy stopped playing chess because …
1. he had to leave his school.
2. he lost interest.
3. his father wouldn’t let him play.
4. he had started losing games.
Раздел 1. АУДИРОВАНИЕ
Вы услышите 6 высказываний. Установите соответствие между высказываниями каждого говорящего A—F и утверждениями, данными в списке 1—7. Используйте каждое утверждение, обозначенное соответствующей цифрой, только один раз. В задании есть одно лишнее утверждение. Вы услышите запись дважды. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу.
2
Вы услышите диалог. Определите, какие из приведённых утверждений А—G соответствуют содержанию текста (1 — True), какие не соответствуют (2 — False) и о чём в тексте не сказано, то есть на основании текста нельзя дать ни положительного, ни отрицательного ответа (3 — Not stated). Занесите номер выбранного вами варианта ответа в таблицу. Вы услышите запись дважды.
A The Armoury is situated near the Kremlin.
B Originally the Kremlin was wooden.
C New walls and towers of red brick were built in the 15th century.
D The Trinity Gate leads to Red Square.
E The monument to Minin and Pozharsky is the oldest in Moscow.
F The monument to Alexander Pushkin is not far from the monument to Yuri Dolgoruky.
G You can watch ballets in the Maly Theatre.
Утверждение
Соответствие диалогу
Вы услышите интервью с автором детективных романов. В заданиях 3—9 запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2 или 3, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа. Вы услышите запись дважды.
3
Which benefit of trees has not been mentioned by the speaker?
1) Protection from flooding.
2) Protection from the sun’s rays.
3) Protection from precipitation.
Ответ: .
4
The smell of pines in the forest is the result of trees releasing
1) oxygen.
2) carbon dioxide.
3) other gasses.
Ответ: .
5
Scientists want to study how
1) gasses are released by trees into the atmosphere.
2) organic compounds form tiny particles.
3) these particles influence the climate.
Ответ: .
6
Cloud droplets are unable to
1) absorb solar radiation.
2) reflect solar radiation.
3) scatter solar radiation.
Ответ: .
7
According to scientists, cloud droplets influence
1) the size of the cloud.
2) the colour of the cloud.
3) the movement of the cloud.
Ответ: .
8
The actual formation of the clouds is governed
1) only by the formation of cloud droplets.
2) primarily by the formation of cloud droplets.
3) by several different processes.
Ответ: .
9
A new way of addressing the problem of global warming is by reducing the amount of
1) greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.
2) the sun’s radiation getting through the atmosphere.
3) the sun’s radiation reflected by the clouds.
Ответ: .
Раздел 2. ЧТЕНИЕ
10
Установите соответствие между заголовками 1—8 и текстами A—G. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу. Используйте каждую цифру только один раз. В задании один заголовок лишний.
1. Exotic Pets
2. Going Back in Time
3. Small Screen Addiction
4. Body Language
5. Massive Destruction
6. Buried Treasure
7. Reason for Extinction
8. Intelligent Enemies
A. The VLT (Very Large Telescope) is the world’s largest telescope and it is taking scientists further back to the Big Bang than they ever thought possible. In other words, the VLT is a kind of a time machine, giving astronomers detailed views of events that took place in the earliest days of the cosmos. One day, we will have a much clearer picture of how our planet was born.
B. The latest development in the debate amongst scientists about what killed the prehistoric dinosaurs is the suggestion that acid rain was the cause. Some geologists suggest that a large meteor hitting the earth at 65 kilometres per second would have led to strongly acidic rain falling all over the world. This idea is fascinating but it would mean the dinosaurs would all have died within a very short time.
C. In 1948, a British farmer discovered an interesting lump of metal while ploughing his field. At first he thought the metal bits were parts of an old bed. Then more ‘parts of old beds’ turned up and the farmer took them to the local museum. ‘But these bits are priceless!’ exclaimed the keeper of the museum. ‘They are Iron Age jewellery and coins!’ Over the next 40 years, more and more items were found in the same field.
D. Rats may have had a bit of a hard time over the years but these days lots of people are forgetting about guinea-pigs and hamsters and are buying rats instead. Domestic rats aren’t the same as the ones that run around rubbish bins — they’re actually quite cute. They are very intelligent and can be trained like dogs. They come in different colours and — a big bonus — they will eat anything!
E. In Western cultures, people look each other in the eye during a conversation to show interest and trust, but in many Asian countries, it’s rude to look people in the eye, especially a superior such as a teacher. One of the most basic and powerful signals is when a person crosses his or her arms across the chest. This can indicate that a person is putting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others.
F. Earthquakes happen all the time in all parts of the world but we don’t notice most of them because they are small. However, big earthquakes are really dangerous. They can make buildings fall down, set off landslides and do other deadly things. The highest death toll caused by an earthquake was in China in 1556, when at least 830,000 people died.
G. According to scientists, Americans watch more TV on average than any other nationality. In fact, many people, particularly children, sit for 35 hours or more per week glued to the box. What’s wrong with watching all that TV? Studies have linked it to everything from obesity to aggression in children not to mention that it puts your mind into a sort of sedated state. Habitual television watching, over long periods of time, has been known to cause depression, and anger.
11
Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски A—F частями предложений, обозначенными цифрами 1—7. Одна из частей в списке 1—7 лишняя. Занесите цифру, обозначающую соответствующую часть предложения, в таблицу.
The Man Booker Prize for Fiction is awarded every year for the best original full-length novel written by a writer from the Commonwealth or the Republic of Ireland. It aims to represent the greatest in contemporary literature and promotes the finest in fiction by rewarding the best book of the year. The prize was originally called the Booker-McConnell Prize, A ____________. However, it was better-known as simply the ‘Booker Prize’. In 2002, the Man Group became the sponsor and they chose the new name, keeping ‘Booker’.
Publishers can submit books for consideration for the prize, but the judges can also ask for books to be submitted B ____________. Firstly, the Advisory Committee gives advice if there have been any changes to the rules for the prize. Then it selects the people C ____________. The judging panel changes every year and usually a person is only a judge once.
Great efforts are made to ensure that the judging panel is balanced in terms of gender and professions within the industry. A writer, a critic, an editor and an academic are chosen along with a well-known person from wider society. However, when the panel of judges has been finalized, they are left to make their own decisions D ____________. The Man Booker judges include critics, writers and academics E ____________. The influence of the prize is so great that the winner will almost certainly see the considerable sales increase, in addition to the £50,000 F ____________. In 1992, a Booker Russian Novel Prize was introduced.
- without any further interference from the prize sponsor
- so as to maintain the consistent quality of the prize
- who will judge the books
- so as to sell them
- which was the name of the company that sponsored it
- that comes with the prize
- they think should be included
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания 12—18. В каждом задании запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа.
‘Have you written a letter to the Froplinsons?’ asked Egbert.
‘No,’ said Janetta, with a note of tired defiance in her voice; ‘I’ve written eleven letters today expressing surprise and gratitude for sundry unmerited gifts, but I haven’t written to the Froplinsons yet.’
‘Someone will have to do it,’ said Egbert.
‘I don’t dispute the necessity, but I don’t think that someone should be me,’ said Janetta. ‘I wouldn’t mind writing a letter of angry recrimination or heartless satire to some suitable recipient. In fact, I should rather enjoy it, but I’ve come to the end of my capacity for expressing servile amiability. Eleven letters today and nine yesterday, all couched in the same strain of ecstatic thankfulness: really, you can’t expect me to sit down to another. There is such a thing as writing oneself out.’
‘I’ve written nearly as many,’ said Egbert, ‘and I’ve had my usual business correspondence to get through, too. Besides, I don’t know what it was that the Froplinsons sent us.’ ‘A William the Conqueror calendar,’ said Janetta, ‘with a quotation of one of his great thoughts for every day in the year.’
‘Impossible,’ said Egbert; ‘he didn’t have three hundred and sixty-five thoughts in the whole of his life, or, if he did, he kept them to himself.’
‘Well, it was William Wordsworth, then,’ said Janetta; ‘I know William came into it somewhere.’
‘That sounds more probable,’ said Egbert; ‘well, let’s collaborate on this letter and get it done. I’ll dictate, and you can scribble it down. ‘Dear Mrs. Froplinson, thank you and your husband so much for the very pretty calendar you sent us. It was very good of you to think of us.’ ’
‘You can’t possibly say that,’ said Janetta, laying down her pen. ‘We sent them something on the twenty-second,’ said Janetta, ‘so they simply had to think of us. There was no getting away from it.’
‘What did we send them?’ asked Egbert gloomily.
‘Bridge-markers,’ said Janetta, ‘in a cardboard case, with some inanity about ‘digging for fortune with a royal spade’ emblazoned on the cover. The moment I saw it in the shop I said to myself ‘Froplinsons’ and to the attendant ‘How much?’ When he said ‘Ninepence,’ I gave him their address, jabbed our card in, paid tenpence or elevenpence to cover the postage, and thanked heaven. With less sincerity and infinitely more trouble they eventually thanked me.’
‘The Froplinsons don’t play bridge,’ said Egbert.
‘One is not supposed to notice social deformities of that sort,’ said Janetta; ‘it wouldn’t be polite. Besides, what trouble did they take to find out whether we read Wordsworth with gladness? For all they knew or cared we might be frantically embedded in the belief that all poetry begins and ends with John Masefield, and it might infuriate or depress us to have a daily sample of Wordsworthian products flung at us.’
‘Well, let’s get on with the letter,’ said Egbert. ‘How clever of you to guess that Wordsworth is our favourite poet.’
Again Janetta laid down her pen.
‘Do you realise what that means?’ she asked; ‘a Wordsworth booklet next Christmas, and another calendar the Christmas after, with the same problem of having to write suitable letters of thankfulness. No, the best thing to do is to drop all further allusion to the calendar and switch off on to some other topic.’
‘But what other topic?’
‘Oh, something like this: ‘What do you think of the New Year Honours List? A friend of ours made such a clever remark when he read it.’ Then you can stick in any remark that comes into your head; it needn’t be clever. The Froplinsons won’t know whether it is or isn’t.’
‘We don’t even know on which side they are in politics,’ objected Egbert; ‘and anyhow you can’t suddenly dismiss the subject of the calendar. Surely there must be some intelligent remark that can be made about it.’
‘Well, we can’t think of one,’ said Janetta wearily; ‘the fact is, we’ve both written ourselves out.’
There was a long silence, the forlorn silence of those who are bereft of hope and have almost ceased to care. Then Egbert started from his seat with an air of resolution. The light of battle was in his eyes.
‘Let me come to the writing-table,’ he exclaimed; ‘I’m going to write to the editor of every enlightened and influential newspaper in the Kingdom, I’m going to suggest that there should be a sort of epistolary Truce of God during the festivities of Christmas and New Year. From the twenty-fourth of December to the third or fourth of January it shall be considered an offence against good sense and good feeling to write or expect any letter or communication that does not deal with the necessary events of the moment. Answers to invitations, arrangements about trains, renewal of club subscriptions, and, of course, all the ordinary everyday affairs of business, sickness, engaging new cooks, and so forth, these will be dealt with in the usual manner as something inevitable. But all the devastating accretions of correspondence, incident to the festive season, these should be swept away to give the season a chance of being really festive.’
‘But you would have to make some acknowledgment of presents received,’ objected Janetta; ‘otherwise people would never know whether they had arrived safely.’
‘Of course, I have thought of that,’ said Egbert; ‘every present that was sent off would be accompanied by a ticket bearing the date of dispatch and the signature of the sender, and some conventional hieroglyphic to show that it was intended to be a Christmas or New Year gift; there would be a counterfoil with space for the recipient’s name and the date of arrival, and all you would have to do would be to sign and date the counterfoil, add a conventional hieroglyphic indicating heartfelt thanks and gratified surprise, put the thing into an envelope and post it.’
‘It sounds delightfully simple,’ said Janetta wistfully, ‘but people would consider it too perfunctory.’
‘It is not a bit more perfunctory than the present system,’ said Egbert; ‘I have only the same conventional language of gratitude at my disposal with which to thank dear old Colonel Chuttle for his perfectly delicious Stilton, which we shall devour to the last morsel, and the Froplinsons for their calendar, which we shall never look at. So you see the present system of acknowledgment is just as perfunctory and conventional as the counterfoil business would be, only ten times more tiresome and brain-racking.’
‘Your plan would certainly bring the idea of a Happy Christmas a step nearer realisation,’ said Janetta. ‘Meanwhile, what am I to say to the Froplinsons?’
(Adapted from ‘Down Pens’ by H. H. Munro)
12
Egbert and Janetta were writing
1) application letters.
2) thank-you letters.
3) letters of recrimination.
4) letters of complaint.
Ответ: .
13
Egbert and Janetta didn’t want to write a letter to the Froplinsons because they
1) had both written themselves out.
2) didn’t like this couple.
3) didn’t know what the Froplinsons had sent them.
4) had a lot of work to do.
Ответ: .
14
Janetta liked her present to the Froplinsons because it was
1) expensive and useless.
2) cheap and useless.
3) expensive and useful.
4) cheap and useful.
Ответ: .
15
Janetta didn’t want to mention that Wordsworth was their favourite poet because
1) she actually didn’t like his poems.
2) her favourite poet was John Masefield.
3) the Froplinsons would send them new Wordsworth-related presents.
4) she didn’t want the Froplinsons to know the truth.
Ответ: .
16
Janetta considered the Froplisons to be
1) stupid.
2) clever.
3) kind.
4) mean.
Ответ: .
17
Egbert suggested that at Christmas people should
1) stop writing letters at all.
2) put off all the everyday affairs of business.
3) not make any acknowledgment of received presents.
4) send counterfoils instead of thank-you letters.
Ответ: .
18
Janetta considered a new system
1) absolutely impossible.
2) too perfunctory.
3) easy to implement.
4) totally unacceptable.
Ответ: .
Раздел 3. ГРАММАТИКА И ЛЕКСИКА
Прочитайте приведённый ниже текст. Преобразуйте, если необходимо, слова, напечатанные заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номерами 19—25, так, чтобы они грамматически соответствовали содержанию текстов. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый пропуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы 19—25.
Обратите внимание, что по правилам ЕГЭ ответы нужно писать без пробелов и других знаков, например, правильный ответ ‘have done’ нужно будет записать как ‘havedone’, иначе ваш ответ не засчитается.
Swimming Pools
19
The first heated swimming pool by Gaius Maecenas of Rome in the first century BC.
CON-
STRUCT
20
Swimming pools became popular in Britain in the beginning of the 19th century. By 1837, London authorities six indoor pools with diving boards.
BUILD
21
The surviving swimming club in the world is the Arlington Baths Club in Glasgow. It is still an active club and continues to own its original Victorian building with a large pool.
OLD
22
After the start of modern Olympic Games in 1896, the popularity of swimming pools off. Nowadays there are lots of different swimming pools, both public and private.
TAKE
23
Most enjoy swimming and swimming pools with their wave-making machines, water slides and tropical vegetation are something unique for them.
CHILD
24
If they could, kids to spend their entire summer in the swimming pool.
CHOOSE
25
However, not everyone their own backyard pool.
HAVE
Прочитайте приведённый ниже текст. Образуйте от слов, напечатанных заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номерами 26—31, однокоренные слова так, чтобы они грамматически и лексически соответствовали содержанию текста. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый пропуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы 26—31.
Waste Management
26
Waste affects our environment — everything that surrounds us including the air, water, land, plants, and man-made things. We need a healthy environment for our own health and .
HAPPY
27
The waste we create has to be controlled to be sure that it does not harm our environment and our health.
CAREFUL
28
So waste management is very important.
EFFECT
29
Waste reduction and recycling have a wide range of environmental benefits and promote public awareness and personal for the waste we create.
RESPON-
SIBLE
30
The best place to start making a is our home. Learn how you can reduce, reuse, and recycle materials to decrease household waste.
DIFFER
31
If we recycle what we can’t use any more, we save resources because the materials replace some of the natural resources including water and energy, which we use to make new products.
RECYCLE
Прочитайте текст с пропусками, обозначенными номерами 32—38. Эти номера соответствуют заданиям 32—38, в которых представлены возможные варианты ответов. Запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа.
Globalization and Communication Growth
The 21st century has 32____ in a new era in man’s ongoing quest for a better life and a better world. For the first time in history, we can now claim to live in ‘One World.’ Globalization has removed many of the gaps that have existed between and among nations. While the physical divide is still present, the 33____ of the Information Highway on how we communicate and live in the present day is simply staggering. Rapid improvements in information technology have allowed us to exchange information and communicate almost everywhere, anywhere, and anytime.
Globalization, as a general term, is best understood as the spread of ideas about the environment, democracy, human rights, and less complicated issues like fashion and fads. Global exchange is now taking place as the market of ideas, culture, and beliefs expand through the use of technology. The nature of business and how it is done has also improved by 34____ and bounds because of globalization.
An example of the remarkable effects of globalization is the invention of the telephone and the television. Television has enabled young people and adults to have the ability to share cultural and ethnic experiences with others. Telephones have also greatly improved communication. Gone are the weeks and even months of waiting for a letter. Anybody can talk to anyone who has another phone 35____ of distance or location on the planet. With the aid of satellites, 3rd generation phones allow us to make a phone call, send a video, or even receive an e-mail. These 36____ in communication have revolutionized business, commerce, and even the personal lives and relationships of millions of people.
Because of the electronic media, vast amounts of important information can reach any parts of the globe in 37____ time. Business establishments, whether big or small, are using the Internet in many ways to build or expand their company’s growth. With the ever improving technology come new markets, high 38____ for products, and also greater competition. Making investments in information and communication technology is now a must for any business enterprise.
32
1) started
2) began
3) ushered
4) launched
Ответ: .
33
1) cause
2) impact
3) consequences
4) result
Ответ: .
34
1) bonds
2) gaps
3) jumps
4) leaps
Ответ: .
35
1) regardless
2) despite
3) notwithstanding
4) because
Ответ: .
36
1) breakbeats
2) breakdowns
3) breakouts
4) breakthroughs
Ответ: .
37
1) any
2) no
3) none of
4) some
Ответ: .
38
1) access
2) claim
3) demand
4) rise
Ответ: .
Ваш результат: пока 0.
Далее вы можете набрать еще 40 баллов. Автоматически это проверить нельзя, поэтому сделайте реалистичный прогноз о том, сколько бы вы смогли набрать баллов, и получите ваш итоговый результат ЕГЭ.
Если возник вопрос по ответу, в котором вы ошиблись, можете задать его в комментариях.
Раздел 4. ПИСЬМО
Для ответов на задания 39 и 40 используйте бланк ответов № 2. Черновые пометки можно делать прямо на листе с заданиями, или можно использовать отдельный черновик. При выполнении заданий 39 и 40 особое внимание обратите на то, что Ваши ответы будут оцениваться только по записям, сделанным в БЛАНКЕ ОТВЕТОВ № 2. Никакие записи черновика не будут учитываться экспертом. Обратите внимание также на необходимость соблюдения указанного объёма текста. Тексты недостаточного объёма, а также часть текста, превышающая требуемый объём, не оцениваются. Запишите сначала номер задания (39, 40), а затем ответ на него. Если одной стороны бланка недостаточно, Вы можете использовать другую его сторону.
You have received a letter from your English-speaking pen friend Jessica who writes:
… By the way, we are doing a project at college on the fashion industry in different countries. It would be nice if you could tell me what clothes are popular with teenagers in Russia. Do you have any special fashion for teens? What kind of clothes do you prefer? Why?
As for me, I bought a new dress yesterday …
Write a letter to Jessica.
In your letter
— answer her questions
— ask 3 questions about her tastes in clothes
Write 100 — 140 words.
Remember the rules of letter writing.
За это задание вы можете получить 6 баллов максимум.
Comment on the following statement.
Lots of people enjoy celebrating holidays. However, for some people a holiday is just a day off.
What is your attitude to celebrations? Which way of celebrating holidays do you find more enjoyable?
Write 200 — 250 words.
— make an introduction (state the problem)
— express your personal opinion and give 2—3 reasons for your opinion
— express an opposing opinion and give 1—2 reasons for this opposing opinion
— explain why you don’t agree with the opposing opinion
— make a conclusion restating your position
За это задание вы можете получить 14 баллов максимум.
Раздел 5. ГОВОРЕНИЕ
— За 1,5 минуты нужно подготовиться и в следующие 1,5 минуты выразительно прочитать текст вслух — 1 балл.
— Составление 5 вопросов на основе ключевых слов. На подготовку отводится 1,5 минуты, затем каждый вопрос надо сформулировать в течение 20 секунд — 5 баллов.
— 3 фотографии. Нужно выбрать 1 и описать ее по предложенному тут же в задании плану за 3,5 минуты — 7 баллов.
— 2 картинки. Нужно сравнить их, описать сходства и различия, объяснить, почему выбранная тематика близка выпускнику, за 3,5 минуты — 7 баллов.
the history of climate
Beginning in the early
1900s, the climate of the world began to warm. This is evident in Figure
1-1, which shows the average Earth surface temperature from 1880 through
1999. The temperature is an area-weighted average over the land and ocean
compiled by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration,
using an averaging technique devised by Quayle et al. ; see also . In
the plot, «zero» temperature is defined as the temperature in 1950. The
fine line shows the monthly temperatures; the thicker line shows the 12
month yearly averages.
The figure shows that the 20th century
had a temperature rise of nearly one degree Celsius. That may not sound
like a lot, but its effects are quite noticeable. In Europe, the great
glaciers of the Alps, such as the Mer de Glace near Chamonix, have been
in retreat, and the canals of Holland almost never freeze over, as they
did in an earlier era to allow Hans Brinker to silver skate into legend.
The effects elsewhere on the globe are more severe, with large areas of
Central Africa, once fertile, becoming arid and no longer capable of supporting
a large population. Although the reason for this warming is not fully
understood, many climate scientists think it is the result of the addition
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by humans.
Figure
1-1 Global warming
As we go back in time in search of earlier records, the historical record
becomes less reliable. Fortunately, Nature has provided its own recording
mechanism. As we will explain in Chapter 4, measurements of oxygen isotopes
yield an estimate of ancient temperatures combined with total global ice
volume a combination which is just as interesting as temperature
alone, if not more so. Data from a kilometer long core taken from the
Greenland glacier, as part of the Greenland Ice Sheet Project «GISP2»
, are shown in Figure 1-2. For comparison purposes, the zero of temperature
scale for this plot was set to match that of the previous plot. For historical
interest, we marked some events from European history.
Figure
1-2 Climate of the last 2400 years
The cool period preceding the 20th century
warming is now seen as a dip that lasted 700 years. This period is now
referred to as «the little ice age.» (The coldest periods, near 1400 and
1700, are sometimes called the two little ice ages.) In her popular
account of the history of the 14th century, historian Barbara
W. Tuchman, argues that the low temperatures triggered social conflict
and poor food production, and was thus responsible for hunger, war, and
possibly even pestilence . Just a few centuries prior, at the beginning
of the second millennium, Europe had experienced the «medieval warm period»
. It was a time when civilization emerged from the Dark Ages, art and
painting flourished, and the wealth and new productivity of Europe allowed
it to build the great cathedrals. Some historians will attribute this
flowering to great leaders, or to great ideas, or to great inventions,
but it is foolish to ignore the changes in climate. Just prior to that,
in the 900s, the Vikings were invading France, possibly driven from the
more northern latitudes by the cold temperatures of that century. The
height of the Roman republic and empire was reached during another time
of unusual warmth even higher than the warm period of today, if
the ice-reckoned temperature scale is accurate.
The next plot (Figure 1-3) shows the data from the Greenland
ice core back to 10,000 BC. Near the right hand side of this plot, the
little dip of the little ice age is clear. Some scientists argue that
global warming is not human caused, but is simply a natural return to
the normal temperature of the previous 8,000 years. In fact, no one knows
for sure if this is right or not. But the foundation for thinking that
human effects will cause warming is substantial. Even if the recent rise
in temperature is natural, human caused effects have a high probability
of dominating in the near future, and within our lifetimes the temperature
of the Earth could go higher than has ever seen previously by Homo
sapiens.
Figure
1-3 Climate of the last 12,000 years
The dip near 6000 BC is not understood. It actually appears
to be coincident with a short term increase in temperature that
took place in Antarctica! So we cant easily interpret everything
in these plots, at least not without studying other records. Fluctuations
are evident all over the plot, and crying to be understood.
Agriculture began about 7,000 BCE, as marked on the
plot. All of civilization was based on this invention. Agriculture allows
large groups of people to live in the same location. It allows a small
number of people to feed others, so that the others can become craftsmen,
artists, historians, inventors, and scientists.
The sudden rise at the left side of the plot, at about
9,000 BCE (i.e. 11,000 years ago), was the end of the last ice age. The
abruptness of the termination is startling. Agriculture, and all of our
civilization, developed since this termination. The enormous glacier,
several kilometers thick, covering much of North America and Eurasia,
rapidly melted. Only small parts of this glacier survived, in Greenland
and Antarctica, where they exist to this day. The melting caused a series
of worldwide floods unlike anything previously experienced by Homo
sapiens. (There had been a previous flood at about 120 kyr, but that
was before Homo sapiens had moved to Europe or North America.)
The flood dumped enough water into the oceans to cause the average sea
level to rise 110 meters, enough to inundate the coastal areas, and to
cover the Bering Isthmus, and turn it into the Bering Strait. The water
from melting ice probably flooded down over land in pulses, as ice-dammed
lakes formed and then catastrophically released their water. These floods
left many records, including remnant puddles now known as the Great Lakes,
and possibly gave rise to legends that persisted for many years. As the
glacier retreated, it left a piles of debris at its extremum. One such
pile is now known as New Yorks Long Island.
In the next plot, Figure 1-4, we show the Greenland ice
data for the last 100,000 years. The very unusual nature of the last 11,000
years stands out in striking contrast to the 90,000 years of cold that
preceded it. We now refer to such an unusual warm period as an interglacial.
The long preceding period of ice is a glacial. During the last glacial,
humans developed elaborate tools, and Homo sapiens migrated from
Africa to Europe. But they did not develop civilization until the ice
age ended.
During the glacial, not only was the temperature lower by 8 Celsius (and
some estimates put it at more than 12 Celsius the record is a superposition
of ice volume and temperature), but the climate was extremely irregular.
The irregularities in temperature during the glacials, the wild bumps
and wiggles that cover much of Figure 1-4, are real, not an artifact of
poor measurement. The same bumps and wiggles are seen in two separate
cores in Greenland, and in data taken from sea floor records found off
the California coast. The ability to adapt quickly during this wild climate
ride may have given a substantial advantage to adaptable animals, such
as humans, and made it difficult for other large fauna to survive. Maybe
it was these rapid changes, and not the rapaciousness of humans, that
drove the mammoths, camels, giant ground sloths and giant beavers (the
size of bears) of North America extinct. Recent global warming appears
negligible on this plot. However, if predictions of climate modelers are
correct, global warming temperature changes will be comparable those during
the ice age.
Figure
1-4 Climate of the last 100,000 years
The reliable data from Greenland go back only as far
as shown in Figure 1-4. We can continue the climate plot further back
by using the records from Vostok, the Russian base in Antarctica, where
another ice core was drilled. The last 420 thousand years of a deuterium
measurement at Vostok is shown in Figure 1-5, with the most recent 100
kyr appended from the Greenland record (which is more detailed). The temperature
scale was adjusted to agree with the scale on the Greenland record.
Figure
1-5 Climate for the last 420 kyr, from Vostok ice
From this plot, it is clear that most of the last 420
thousand years (420 kyr) was spent in ice age. The brief periods when
the record peaks above the zero line, the interglacials, typically lasted
from a few thousand to perhaps twenty thousand years.
These data should frighten you. All of civilization developed
during the last interglacial, and the data show that such interglacials
are very brief. Our time looks about up. Data such as these are what led
us to state, in the Preface, that the next ice age is about to hit us,
any millennium now. It does not take a detailed theory to make this prediction.
We dont necessarily know why the next ice age is imminent
(at least on a geological time scale), but the pattern is unmistakable.
The real reason to be frightened is that we really dont
understand what causes the pattern. We dont know why the ice ages
are broken by the short interglacials. We do know something that
the driving force is astronomical. Well describe how we know that
in Chapter 2. We have models that relate the astronomical mechanisms to
changes in climate, but we dont know which of our models are right,
or if any of them are. We will discuss these models in some detail in
this book. Much of the work of understanding lies in the future. It is
a great field for a young student to enter.
The ice records take us back only to 420,000 years in
the past. However, oxygen isotope records in sea floor cores allow us
to go further. One of the best sets of data comes from a location in the
northern Atlantic Ocean known as the Ocean Drilling Project Site 607 .
This site has climate data going back three million years, and is shown
in Figure 1-6. But before you look at the figure, let us warn you. In
the paleoclimate community, there is a convention that time is shown backwards.
That is, the present is plotted on the left-hand edge, and the past is
towards the right. We are going to use this opportunity to change our
convention, for the remainder of the book, so that you will have less
trouble reading the literature. (The literature of «global warming» scientists,
in contrast, follows the other convention, which we have used up until
now.) We apologize for this change in convention, but we do not take blame
for it.
In Figure 1-6, the 10 kyr years of agriculture and civilization
appear as a sudden rise in temperature barely visible squeezed against
the left hand axis of the plot. The temperature of 1950 is indicated by
the horizontal line. As is evident from the data, civilization was created
in an unusual time.
There are several important features to notice in these
data, all of which will be discussed further in the remainder of the book.
For the last million years or so (the left most third of the plot) the
oscillations have had a cycle of about 100 kyr (thousand years). That
is, the enduring period of ice is broken, roughly every 100 kyr, by a
brief interglacial. During this time, the terminations of the ice ages
appear to be particularly abrupt, as you can see from the sudden jumps
that took place near 0, 120, 320, 450, and 650 thousand years ago. This
has led scientists to characterize the data as shaped like a «sawtooth,»
although the pattern is not perfectly regular.
Figure
1-6 Climate of the last 3 million years
But as we look back beyond a 1000 kyr (1 million years),
the character changes completely. The cycle is much shorter (it averages
41 kyr), the amplitude is reduced, the average value is higher (indicating
that the ice ages were not as intense) and there is no evidence for the
sawtooth shape. These are the features that ice age theories endeavor
to explain. Why did the transition take place? What are the meanings of
the frequencies? (We will show that they are well-known astronomical frequencies.)
In the period immediately preceding the data shown here, older than 3
million years, the temperature didnt drop below the 1950 value,
and we believe that large glaciers didnt form perhaps only
small ones, such as we have today in Greenland and Antarctica.
As we end this brief introduction to the history of the
ice ages, lets again look to the future. As soon as the cycle of
the ice ages was known, scientists realized that the ice age would eventually
return. Some of them enjoyed scaring the public about the impending catastrophe.
In Figure 1-7 we show the cover from a magazine of the 1940s showing the
consequences of the return of the ice age to New York City. (One of the
authors of the present book, RAM, saw this image as a child, and it made
a lasting impression.) Unfortunately, the art genre of returning ice has
been superceded, in the public forum, by paintings of asteroids about
to hit the Earth, usually with a curious dinosaur momentarily distracted
by the unusual scene. But, as we mentioned earlier, the more likely scenario
for the early 21st century, is the continued gradual growth
of global warming.
Figure
1 -7 The Ice Age returns to New York City
You may continue in Chapter 1 to read A
Brief Introduction to Ice Age Theories, or A
Brief Introduction to Spectra.
|
Practice Test 13 |
ЧАСТЬ 2 – ЧТЕНИЕ |
2 Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски 1–6 частями предложений, обозначенными буквами A–G. Одна из частей в списке А–G лишняя. Занесите букву, обозначающую соответствующую часть предложения, в таблицу B3.
On 24th August, 79AD, Mount Vesuvius, a volcano near Naples in Southern Italy, erupted.
The eruption was so powerful that it completely buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum with ash. Centuries passed 1) ….. .
The towns lay buried for more than 1,500 years. Then, in 1599, an architect called Domenico Fontana rediscovered the towns
2) ….. .
However, a couple more centuries passed before any serious effort was made to unearth the towns, 3) ….. . Archaeologists discovered that Pompeii and Herculaneum had been wealthy, sophisticated and lively towns.
Both towns had had restaurants, food markets, shops, theatres and swimming pools. People had lived in large houses 4) ….. . In Pompeii, an aqueduct had even provided water for more than
twenty five street fountains, four public baths and many private houses and businesses.
While excavating Pompeii, one archaeologist
— Guiseppe Fiorelli — noticed something fascinating. Spaces could sometimes be seen in the hardened ash. Fiorelli quickly realised that these spaces were places 5) ….. . He decided to fill them with plaster in order to create casts.
Fiorelli’s technique created casts that were so detailed that it was even possible to see the terrified expressions on the faces of some of the people who had been killed when Mount Vesuvius erupted 2,000 years ago. Today, each year over 2.5 million visitors go to see the casts 6) ….. .
About three million people still live close to Mount Vesuvius. This is worrying as it is still an active volcano that scientists expect to erupt again.
Awhere human bodies had once been
Band the rest of the treasures at Pompeii and Herculaneum
C while digging in the area
Dand eventually people forgot that they had ever existed
Ewhich was also a popular holiday resort for wealthy Romans
Fwhich had beautiful frescoes painted on the walls
Gbut when it was, astonishing and wonderful findings were made
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1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
|
B3 D |
C |
G |
F |
A |
B |
103
|
ЧАСТЬ 2 – ЧТЕНИЕ |
Practice Test 13 |
3Прочитайте рассказ и выполните задания А15–А21. В каждом задании обведите цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному вами варианту ответа.
Caribbean Dream
The snow was piling up around the door and there was no sign yet of a change in the weather. As he cleared the pathway, Carl thought of blue skies and warm sunshine. It was how he got through the winters. He had decided that it must be his Caribbean background that made him suffer so miserably every winter. Everyone had warned him about the British weather but he had
used to it. Twenty
A15
precious savings. He still dreamt of returning to the Caribbean one day and although Carl was rarely able to add to his savings, so far he hadn’t had to use them.
Over the next few months, he worked as many hours overtime as he could. One afternoon, his line manager sent for him. He nervously entered the office and when he saw the expression on his manager’s face, he knew what was coming. “I’m
A19
He hadn’t meant to stay for so long. His intention had been to work as hard as he could for ten years, save every penny he could and then return home to start up his own business. Somehow, along the way, he had ended up getting married and having three children. Carl loved his family dearly, although this didn’t stop him from
A16
occasionally wondering where he would be now if he’d stuck to his plans.
Carl worked at a local factory where they manufactured appliances such as washing machines and fridges. He’d been there for eighteen years and had been promoted several times. He was now a foreman on the day shift. Lately, there had been talk of redundancies around the factory. He knew that the company
sorry,” he said. At least he had a few months left at work, which would give him time to make plans.
Because Carl had been with the company for so long, he was entitled to a considerable redundancy package. By law, the company had to calculate his compensation based on his current salary. He would leave with enough money to pay off the loan for his house completely. This was a good thing, of course, even though he had lost his job. Carl began to think more and more eagerly about his Caribbean dream. He decided that he
would talk to his family. Perhaps it was true that A20 every cloud has a silver lining, he thought.
Within the space of six months, Carl’s life changed completely. He sold his house and the
survive.
Alarm bells started to ring in Carl’s mind when his wife came home in tears one day and announced that the shop she had been working in was about to close for good. Carl realised that soon he would need to start dipping into his
into the Caribbean way of life and he has found some premises where he is planning to open up A21 an electrical appliances repair business. His Caribbean dream is becoming a reality. He chuckles quietly and shakes his head when people
ask him if he will miss the snow!
104
|
Practice Test 13 |
ЧАСТЬ 2 – ЧТЕНИЕ |
A1514 Regarding the British weather, Carl
1 thought that he would always find it difficult. 2 believed that he would get used to it one day. 3 hadn’t expected the winters to be so bad.
4 didn’t understand why people talked about it so much.
A1615 When he thought about his life, Carl would sometimes
1 worry about the future.
2 regret coming to Britain.
3 wish he had never married.
4 imagine how his life might have been different.
A1716 In the third paragraph, we learn that Carl 1 was happy about his promotion.
2 felt confident that his job was safe.
3 worried about being made redundant.
4 realised he needed to look for another job.
A1817 When Carl’s wife lost her job, Carl felt concerned that 1 he would lose his job, too.
2 they wouldn’t be able to visit their relatives any more. 3 their plans for the future would be affected.
4 he wouldn’t be able to save any more.
A1918 When Carl’s line manager called him into his office, the manager seemed very
|
1 |
angry. |
|
2 |
nervous. |
|
3 |
apologetic. |
|
4 |
afraid. |
A2019 In the sixth paragraph, the phrase ‘every cloud has a silver lining’ means 1 it is impossible to predict the future.
2 bad situations can bring about good.
3 there is often an opportunity to make money through a bad situation. 4 dreams can help you get through bad times.
A2120 In the final paragraph, the narrator gives the impression that Carl 1 is slowly getting used to a very different way of life.
2 is unexpectedly missing the British weather.
3 has less money now but feels happier.
4 is more satisfied with his new life than his old.
105
ЧАСТЬ 3 – ГРАММАТИКА И ЛЕКСИКА Practice Test 13
1Прочитайте приведённый ниже текст. Преобразуйте, если необходимо, сло’ ва, напечатанные заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номера’ ми B4–B10, так, чтобы они грамматически соответствовали содержанию текста. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый пропуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы B4–B10.
|
B6 |
affects |
||
|
B7 |
will be found |
||
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B8 |
having |
||
|
B9 |
am going |
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|
B10 |
will get |
2 Прочитайте приведённый ниже текст. Преобразуйте, если необходимо, слова, напечатанные заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номерами В11–B16, так, чтобы они грамматически и лексически соответ’ ствовали содержанию текста. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый пропуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы В11–В16.
Fyodor Dostoevsky
Fyodor Dostoevsky was born in Moscow in 1821. He was the son of a doctor who worked in a hospital for the poor.
|
The young Dostoevsky went to military school and held B11 |
government |
posts |
until he resigned to become an author. He became one of the most important and influential writers that has ever lived. Dostoevsky admired the works of the English writer Charles Dickens
|
who wrote about difficult times during the 9)B12 |
Industrial |
Revolution in the late |
18th and early 19th centuries. Dostoevsky also wrote novels about social issues.
One of Dostoevsky’s most significant works is Crime and Punishment. The main character in the
|
novel is Raskolnikov, a poor, |
10)B13 |
unemployed |
university drop out. The novel |
|
|
tells the story of how Raskolnikov |
plans to murder a(n) |
1B14) |
greedy |
|
moneylender to solve his financial problems. Another major work is The Brothers Karamazov,
|
which |
was Dostoevsky’s final novel and |
12)B15 |
possibly |
even his best. The |
|
|
novel |
focuses on a murder again but this time Dostoevsky examines other characters’ |
||||
|
reaction(s) |
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|
13)B16 |
to the crime. |
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Fyodor Dostoevsky died in 1881 and is buried in the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in St. Petersburg.
GOVERN
INDUSTRY
EMPLOY GREED
POSSIBLE
REACT
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|
Practice Test 13 |
ЧАСТЬ 3 – ГРАММАТИКА И ЛЕКСИКА |
3Прочитайте текст с пропусками, обозначенными номерами А22–А28. Эти номера соответствуют заданиям A22–A28, в которых представлены возмож’ ные варианты ответов. Обведите номер выбранного вами варианта ответа.
Harrods
Harrods is a world famous department store in Knightsbridge, London. Known for its quality merchandise and excellent customer
service, Harrods is one of London’s biggest tourist 14)A22…….. .
Harrods, which was 15)A23…….. by Charles Henry Harrod in 1835, started out as a tiny grocery and tea shop in London’s East End. The shop was moved in 1849 to its current 16)A24…….. on the Brompton Road, where it gradually grew into what it is today. Currently, Harrods comprises over 330 departments on seven floors and has a staff of about 5,000 people.
Harrods’ motto is ‘All things for all people, everywhere’. And it is true that you can buy almost anything you need at Harrods.
|
……..17) |
you want to get a haircut, buy a pet dog, find a wedding dress, buy some property in London, or simply choose a |
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|
A25 |
a break from your shopping, don’t worry because the shop |
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|
new coat, Harrods can help. What’s more, if you want to |
……..18) |
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|
has twenty nine restaurants! |
A26 |
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at this famous department store. You can’t |
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19)A27 |
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|
So when in London, don’t forget to take a |
20)A28…….. |
it — at night, |
Harrods is illuminated by about 11,500 lightbulbs, 300 of which are changed every day by the shop’s electrical engineers.
|
A22 |
1 |
features |
2 |
attractions |
3 |
stops |
4 |
places |
|
A23 |
1 |
composed |
2 |
produced |
3 |
established |
4 |
manufactured |
|
A24 |
1 |
situation |
2 |
post |
3 |
area |
4 |
location |
|
A25 |
1 |
Whether |
2 |
Including |
3 |
Depending |
4 |
While |
|
A26 |
1 |
give |
2 |
take |
3 |
do |
4 |
make |
|
A27 |
1 |
view |
2 |
sight |
3 |
look |
4 |
glance |
|
A28 |
1 |
lose |
2 |
miss |
3 |
leave |
4 |
pass |
ЧАСТЬ 4 – ПИСЬМО
C11 You have received a letter from your English speaking pen friend David who writes:
… I only get a little pocket money from my parents because they can’t afford to give me a lot. Do you get pocket money? Do you think parents should give their children pocket money? I don’t have a part time job, but my best friend does. Is it common for teenagers in Russia to have a part time job?
So, I have a new hobby – I’m learning to play a musical instrument …
|
Write a letter to David. In your letter |
● answer his questions |
|
● ask 3 questions about his new hobby |
Write 100 140 words. Remember the rules of letter writing.
C22 Comment on the following statement.
“Travelling by air is usually considered to be much quicker and more comfortable than travelling by other means. However, sometimes this may not be the case.”
What are the advantages and disadvantages of travelling by air? Write 200 250 words.
Use the following plan:
●write an introduction (state the problem/topic)
●list the advantages and give reasons/examples
●list the disadvantages and give reasons/examples
●draw a conclusion (give your opinion or a balanced consideration of the topic)
107
|
ЧАСТЬ 1 – АУДИРОВАНИЕ |
Practice Test 14 |
1 Вы услышите высказывания шести людей о карьерных планах на будущее. Уста новите соответствие между высказываниями каждого говорящего 1–6 и утверж дениями, данными в списке A–G. Используйте каждое утверждение, обозначенное буквой, только один раз. В задании есть одно лишнее утверждение. Вы услышите запись дважды. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу B1.
A I’m really determined to achieve my ambition.
B I would like to have my own successful business.
C I haven’t made my mind up about what I want to do yet.
D I believe there’s more to life than work.
E Being successful is all I care about.
F I would like to make a difference to people’s lives.
G I want to make my own decisions about my future.
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
|
B1 B |
D |
C |
F |
A |
G |
2Вы услышите беседу двух друзей о работе в летнем лагере. Определите, какие из приведённых утверждений А1–А7 соответствуют содержанию текста (1– True), какие не соответствуют (2 – False) и о чём в тексте не сказано, то есть на основании текста нельзя дать ни положительного, ни отрицательного ответа (3 – Not stated). Вы услышите запись дважды. Обведите правильный ответ.
|
A17 |
Mary wants a summer job for more than one reason. |
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1 |
True |
2 |
False |
3 |
Not stated |
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Pete worked with children of different ages last summer. |
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|
A28 |
|||||||
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1 |
True |
2 |
False |
3 |
Not stated |
||
|
A39 |
Pete had problems |
with the children he worked with. |
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|
1 |
True |
2 |
False |
3 |
Not stated |
||
|
Pete found it difficult to get up so early in the morning. |
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|
A410 |
|||||||
|
1 |
True |
2 |
False |
3 |
Not stated |
||
|
At first, Mary wonders whether she |
would be suitable for the job. |
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|
A511 |
|||||||
|
1 |
True |
2 |
False |
3 |
Not stated |
||
|
All |
of the activities organised took |
place at the camp. |
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|
A612 |
|||||||
|
1 |
True |
2 |
False |
3 |
Not stated |
||
|
Pete is considering |
working as a camp counsellor again this year. |
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A713 |
|||||||
|
1 |
True |
2 |
False |
3 |
Not stated |
||
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|
Practice Test 14 |
ЧАСТЬ 1 – АУДИРОВАНИЕ |
3Вы услышите женщину, рассказывающую о своей поездке в Бангкок. В заданиях А8–А14 обведите цифру 1, 2 или 3, соответствующую номеру выбранного вами варианта ответа. Вы услышите запись дважды.
14A8 Regarding the weather in Bangkok, the narrator says
1 it was a nice change for her.
2 she couldn’t get used to it.
3 it made her feel ill at first.
15A9 The narrator visited Bangkok because
1 she had heard it was a great place.
2 she found a cheap flight there.
3 she was considering moving there.
16A10 The narrator says the Grand Palace
1 is where the royal family lives.
2 has had different uses.
3 isn’t open to the public.
17A11 According to the narrator, Bangkok Zoo is
1 mainly popular with tourists.
2 inexpensive to visit.
3 best visited at a certain time.
18A12 When talking about Chatuchak Market, the narrator gives advice about 1 how to get there.
2 when to visit.
3 how to get the best bargains.
19A13 The narrator suggests that street food
|
1 |
isn’t any cheaper than restaurant food. |
|
2 |
should be avoided in non-tourist areas. |
|
3 |
is much better than many people think. |
20A14 When taking a ‘tuk-tuk’ taxi, the narrator says it’s important to 1 agree on the price before you get in.
2 make sure you are not the only passenger.
3 remember to tip the driver.
109
|
ЧАСТЬ 2 – ЧТЕНИЕ |
Practice Test 14 |
1Установите соответствие между заголовками A–Н и текстами 1–7. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу B2. Используйте каждую букву только один раз. В задании один заголовок лишний.
|
A |
Relationship advice |
E |
Designer shops |
|
B |
For a good cause |
F |
Solving a travel problem |
|
C |
Important visitors |
G |
Back in fashion |
|
D |
Problems with a new trend |
H |
So realistic |
1In America, shopping malls are much more than just places to shop. For teenage girls, who make up a large proportion of the shoppers, they’re places to look around, relax and socialise with friends. But that is not to say that they don’t make any purchases. If teen girls aren’t impressed by one of the many articles of clothing they’ve tried on, they’re sure to spend some money on food or drink.
2IMAX has made the movie experience more exciting by bringing films to life! How does IMAX work? Simple. Large film moves through a special high-tech projector and is shone onto a gigantic screen the size of an eight-storey building lying sideways. But viewers beware! The effects seem so real, you might get motion sickness.
3There is a simple way to stop your ears from popping when on a plane. Just chew gum! It’s not necessary, however, to chew throughout the entire journey; just when the plane is taking off and landing. This is the time when the plane’s cabin pressure changes the most. Trying to yawn or swallow air is also quite helpful.
4Keeping friendships alive can be challenging. Not only does it require honesty, understanding and loyalty but breathing space, too. ‘Clingy’ friends who never leave you alone can become tiresome. So, avoid putting strain on a friendship by being too needy. Give
friends time to hang out with others or just to be on their own. They’ll certainly appreciate it and it will actually help strengthen the friendship.
5Another trend in casual clothing has arrived! It’s not comprised of tight jeans, layered T- shirts or scarves but of glasses, ties, hats and suits. Yes, the ‘geek look’ is in again. Fortunately, this wardrobe doesn’t cost much and isn’t difficult to put together. All teen boys have to do is to look to old movies for inspiration and borrow some articles of clothing from their dad’s wardrobe.
6The student committee of Sussex College is planning a two-day movie marathon. The students have chosen films from all genres including comedy, drama and science fiction. The event will be held this May Day weekend at the college. Proceeds will go towards purchasing laptops for the college computer room. Everyone is welcome and tickets are available at the door.
7The latest cyber craze is blogging. A blog is basically a personal online journal. Blogging is different from posting in chat rooms because once you log out of a blog, your text remains. One disadvantage of this is that anyone could read your blog. University admissions departments or employers could access it, for example. Blogging can also be very addictive!
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
|
B2 C |
H |
F |
A |
G |
B |
D |
110
|
Practice Test 14 |
ЧАСТЬ 2 – ЧТЕНИЕ |
2 Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски 1–6 частями предложений, обозначенными буквами A–G. Одна из частей в списке А–G лишняя. Занесите букву, обозначающую соответствующую часть предложения, в таблицу B3.
We’ve all heard the term ‘ice age’ used in everyday language.
Usually, when ordinary people use this term, they mean a period of the Earth’s history 1) ….. . In this sense, the Earth’s last ice age was about 10,000 years ago.
When scientists use the term ‘ice age’, however, they mean that the Earth’s polar regions only are covered in ice, 2) ….. .
Scientists believe that ice ages are quite rare events, which means that the Earth is almost always ice free at the North and South Poles. In fact, there have only been about five ice ages in the Earth’s 4.5 billion year history.
When an ice age does happen, however, it usually lasts for a very long time anywhere from 30 to 300 million years. The ice age we
are in at the moment began about 40 million years ago 3) ….. .
In every ice age, the amount of ice on Earth is different. When the temperature is cold (‘glacial’ periods), the amount of ice increases and the continents become covered in ice. When the temperature is warm (‘interglacial’ periods), the ice melts
4) ….. .
At present, the Earth is in an ‘interglacial’ period of an ice age, 5) ….. .
Scientists think that the Earth won’t go into a glacial period for another 50,000 years, 6) ….. .
Some scientists even think that global warming will keep temperatures so high that the next glacial period won’t happen for much longer.
Aand scientists think it will continue for a few million years more
Bwhich makes it impossible to grow crops
Cwhich is good news for mankind because agriculture depends on the continents being ice-free
Dwhich is why there is ice only at the poles
E until there is ice only at the poles
Fwhen temperatures are low and large parts of the earth’s continents are covered in ice
Gso according to them we are in the middle of an ice age today
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
|
B3 F |
G |
A |
E |
D |
C |
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|
ЧАСТЬ 2 – ЧТЕНИЕ |
Practice Test 14 |
3Прочитайте рассказ и выполните задания А15–А21. В каждом задании обведите цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному вами варианту ответа.
The Slate Quarry
Bethesda used to be at the heart of the Welsh slate industry. The famous dark blue-green stone, used for roof and floor tiles, had been exported all
world’s biggest at nearly a mile long and 1,200 feet deep. It was a spectacular sight, a man-made
provided a source
A15
of Bethesda, as
numerous outdoor activity centres had been set up around the town.
David’s speciality was rock-climbing. Climbing had become more popular recently, along with other so-called ‘extreme sports’. David believed this was because of television. The advanced cameras used by the television companies could show spectacular images of hang-gliders taking off from the tops of mountains or climbers
A16
years of dedicated practice, were shown as being deceptively easy. Annoyingly, because of this, he had to spend the first morning of each course lecturing the participants on the dangers involved.
North Wales is one of the most beautiful regions of Britain. However, it rains regularly, even throughout the summer. Slate becomes dangerously slippery in the rain, and David made sure that his climbers used safety ropes and harnesses at all times. That day he was leading a group of seven teenagers from a town near London. As he tried to demonstrate the equipment, they continually mocked his accent
A17
and whispered to one another. At times, David muttered angrily to himself in his native Welsh language, knowing that they wouldn’t understand a word.
The three girls in the group had soon understood the technical procedures and David was pleasantly surprised at how well they worked
then over who had done the best. By the time David and the boys returned to the quarry floor, they were running almost an hour late. David announced that they were going back to the hostel immediately, despite loud complaints from the girls. The original plan had been to stop off in the town for a bit of shopping on the way back.
David was too irritated to argue, and stormed off towards the hostel. He phoned a couple of friends, in an attempt to drown out the teenagers’ complaining. Suddenly, one of the boys was pulling at his arm. “Sir, Sir! The girls, Sir, they’ve run off!” The girls, it seemed, had decided to
easy to get lost in these hills, and now it was beginning to get dark.
As the group marched on, the weather steadily worsened. Within minutes a light drizzle had turned into driving rain, which didn’t surprise David at all. He knew that one minute the sun 
could be shining in these hills and the next the sky could be covered with big, black clouds. He had
no choice but to alert the Mountain Rescue Team.
David tried to prepare himself for the inevitable 
questioning, and of course the deserved criticism.
He spoke to the operator in Welsh as the boys looked on. Suddenly, David sighed with relief. The operator had informed him that the girls were safe and well. They had already reached the town centre safely and had stopped a policeman to ask where to catch the bus back to the hostel.
112
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Главная ⇒ 💡Articles ⇒ Toefl – causes of ice ages – reading from diagnostic test
Causes of Ice Ages
Geologists have shown that for about 80 percent of the past 2.5 million years, ice-age conditions have prevailed on the Earth’s surface. During the past one million years, increased glacial conditions have run in cycles of approximately 100,000 years.
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles* as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts* on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation.
These Milankovitch insolation cycles were the dominant theory in ice-age research for much of the twentieth century despite the fact that the match between periods of peak insolation and most intense glaciation were not exact. For example, a cycle of 400,000 years predicted by the Milankovitch theory has never shown up in the climate records obtained through the study of microfossils deposited on the sea floor. Also, recent analysis has shown that the insolation theory predicts peaks of sunlight at intervals of 95,000 and 125,000 years. Climatological data does not support this predicted sunlight peaking. Other damaging evidence was the indication of a precisely measured sudden rise in temperature at a water-filled cave in Nevada, which preceded the increase in solar radiation that was supposed to cause it.
These and other problems
with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists, Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet, thus plunging it into regular cold periods.
The advantage of this theory is that it is not confronted with several of the problems associated with the Milankovitch theory. In particular, the new theory fits well with the analysis of ocean sediments taken from eight locations around the world. This analysis yielded data clearly showing the peak of the last several ice ages with a period of 100,000 years and corresponding to the periods when the Earth’s oscillating inclination takes it through clouds of extraterrestrial debris.
However, many researchers in this field are not yet persuaded by the inclination hypothesis.
2017-09-27
Toefl – causes of ice ages – reading from diagnostic test
В соответствии со Спецификацией контрольных
измерительных материалов для проведения в 2015 году единого государственного
экзамена по иностранным языкам подготовленной Федеральным государственным
бюджетным научным учреждением «Федеральный институт педагогических измерений» и
опубликованной на сайте fipi.ru, в разделе «Чтение» проверяется
сформированность умений понимания как основного содержания письменных текстов,
так и полного понимания соответствующих текстов. Кроме того, в чтении
проверяется понимание структурно-смысловых связей в тексте.
В разделе «Чтение» представлены задания, относящиеся к трем
разным уровням сложности. Раздел 2 («Чтение») содержит 9 заданий. Рекомендуемое
время на выполнение заданий раздела 2 составляет 30 минут.
Жанрово-стилистическая принадлежность текстов, используемых
в разделе «Чтение»: публицистические, художественные, научно-популярные и
прагматические тексты.
Требования к отбору текстов
Тексты, используемые для заданий всех разделов, должны
отвечать следующим требованиям:
- выбранный отрывок должен характеризоваться законченностью,
внешней связностью и внутренней осмысленностью; - содержание должно учитывать возрастные особенности
выпускника, не должновыходить за рамки коммуникативного, читательского и
жизненного опыта экзаменуемого; - текст должен соответствовать жанру, указанному в описании
задания; - содержание не должно дискриминировать экзаменуемых по
религиозному, национальному и другим признакам; - текст не должен быть перегружен информативными элементами:
терминами, именами собственными, цифровыми данными; - языковая сложность текста должна соответствовать заявленному
уровню сложности задания (базовый, повышенный, высокий).
В соответствии с Кодификатором элементов
содержания и требований к уровню подготовки выпускников образовательных
организаций для проведения единого государственного экзамена по
английскому языку, в Перечень элементов содержания, проверяемых на едином
государственном экзамене по английскому языку, раздел «Чтение»,
входит:
Чтение
2.1 Понимание основного содержания сообщений, несложных публикаций научно-познавательного характера, отрывков из произведений художественной литературы.
2.2 Полное и точное понимание информации прагматических текстов, публикаций научно-популярного характера, отрывков из произведений художественной литературы.
2.3 Выборочное понимание необходимой/интересующей информации из текста статьи, проспекта.
2.4 Понимание структурно-смысловых связей текста.
В соответствии с перечнем требований к уровню
подготовки выпускников, достижение которых проверяется на едином
государственном экзамене по английскому языку,
Знания, умения и навыки, проверяемые на ЕГЭ в разделе
«Чтение»
1.1 языковой лексический материал:
1.1.1 значения лексических единиц, связанных с изученной тематикой и соответствующими ситуациями общения (см. подраздел «Предметное содержание речи» в разделе 1
кодификатора);
1.1.2 значения оценочной лексики;
1.1.3 П значения идиоматической лексики в рамках изученных тем;
1.1.4 значения реплик-клише речевого этикета, отражающих особенности культуры страны/стран изучаемого языка;
1.2 языковой грамматический материал:
1.2.1 значение изученных грамматических явлений (см. подраздел «Грамматическая сторона речи» в разделе 1 кодификатора);
1.2.2 значение видо-временных форм глагола;
1.2.3 значение неличных и неопределенно-личных форм глагола;
1.2.4 значение глагольных форм условного наклонения;
1.2.5 значение косвенной речи/косвенного вопроса;
1.2.6 значение согласования времен;
1.2.7 П средства и способы выражения модальности;
1.2.8 П средства и способы выражения условия;
1.2.9 П средства и способы выражения предположения;
1.2.10 П средства и способы выражения причины;
1.2.11 П средства и способы выражения следствия;
1.2.12 П средства и способы выражения побуждения к действию;
1.3 страноведческую информацию из аутентичных источников, сведения о стране/странах изучаемого языка;
1.3.1 сведения о культуре и науке;
1.3.2 сведения об исторических и современных реалиях;
1.3.3 сведения об общественных деятелях;
1.3.4 сведения о месте в мировом сообществе и мировой культуре;
1.3.5 сведения о взаимоотношениях с нашей страной;
1.4 языковые средства и правила речевого и неречевого поведения в соответствии со сферой общения и социальным статусом партнера.
Уметь:
2.3.1 Читать аутентичные тексты различных стилей(публицистические, художественные, научно-популярные,прагматические) с использованием различных стратегий/видов чтения в соответствии с коммуникативной задачей.
2.3.2 Использовать ознакомительное чтение в целях понимания основного содержания сообщений, интервью, репортажей, публикаций научно-познавательного характера, отрывков из произведений художественной литературы.
2.3.3 Использовать просмотровое/поисковое чтение в целях извлечения необходимой/запрашиваемой информации из текста статьи, проспекта.
2.3.4 Использовать изучающее чтение в целях полного понимания информации прагматических текстов, публикаций научно-познавательного характера, отрывков из произведений художественной литературы.
2.3.5 Отделять главную информацию от второстепенной, выявлять наиболее значимые факты
2.3.6 Определять свое отношение к прочитанному.
2.3.7 Определять временную и причинно-следственную взаимосвязь событий, прогнозировать развитие/результат излагаемых фактов/событий, обобщать описываемые факты/явления.
2.3.8 Определять замысел автора; оценивать важность/новизну информации; понимать смысл текста и его проблематику, используя элементы анализа текста.
2.6 Компенсаторные умения.
2.6.1 Пользоваться языковой и контекстуальной догадкой при чтении и аудировании
2.6.2 Прогнозировать содержание текста по заголовку/началу текста, использовать текстовые опоры различного рода (подзаголовки, таблицы, графики, шрифтовые выделения, комментарии, сноски)
2.6.3 Игнорировать лексические и смысловые трудности, не влияющие на понимание основного содержания текста.
Пример заданий, составляющих раздел «Чтение»в ЕГЭ по английскому языку
Рекомендуемое время выполнения задания — 8 минут.
Установите соответствие между заголовками А — Н и текстами 1 — 7. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу. Используйте каждую букву только один раз. В задании один заголовок лишний.
A. TOURING THE COUNTRY
B. NEW MANAGEMENT
C. SATISFYING DIFFERENT TASTES
D. PLEASURE OF THE HOLIDAY
E. BEGINNING OF THE CAREER
F. GREAT CHANGES
G. LOSS OF INTEREST
H. FINANCIAL POLICY
1. Tourists from all over the world will enjoy their time in London if they plan a visit to one of the capital’s famous musicals or plays as an inbuilt part of their holiday in England. The London stage scene has been a big success story for over a hundred years and visitors will appreciate the programme in London theatres which has not changed for years.
2. Robert Sims is the brilliant new author of the comedy play about student life in Scotland at the Round House Theatre in Glasgow. Robert, who is only twenty four, started to write the play immediately after leaving university. He told our reporter that he couldn’t write the play while he was at university, because many of the characters in it were his fellow students or university lecturers. The play is also partly a musical with some very funny songs.
3. The new programme of plays at the Eastbourne Winter Garden Theatre contains a very varied and interesting variety of productions. The summer holiday programme starts with a French comedy, continues with the play «The Three Sisters» by Chekhov and ends with the «Rocky Horror Movie Show». I wonder how the conservative Eastbourne audiences will cope with this surprising mix.
4. The new winter season at the Hippodrome Theatre is a big break with tradition. There are no musicals, no comedies and no Agatha Chistie thrillers. The new management is staging three Shakespeare plays and two plays by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, in addition to a very modern pantomime which doesn’t have either a Prince Charming or two ugly sisters. We wish the Hippodrome every success in its efforts to bring culture to the masses.
5. Our winter programme of plays and musicals starts on the first of December. We offer special rates to all students and senior citizens and there are also very good reductions for all theatre goers, who join our theatre club and buy tickets for three or more performances in advance. Theatre programmes with details of each performance and the actors are also free for all members of the theatre club, which is another big saving. Support your local theatre again this season.
6. The long running soap opera «Green Wellies», set in the rural south east of England is scheduled to end in August. The directors of Channel 4 point to decreased enthusiasm for the programme over the last year as the major cause for this decision. Many viewers have complained about the weak story lines and the poor acting of some of the main characters. Also a lot of young people are not interested anymore in hearing about agricultural topics.
7. The new boys’ pop group «No Chance» is scheduled to perform at the Liberty Theatre in Clacton. This is part of their journey of England from Bognor in the south to Grimsby in the north. The boys are in big demand after the successful launch of their new CD «Mind over Matter» and it is anticipated that the Clacton venue will be a complete sell out. Buy your tickets now to be sure of a seat.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
Рекомендуемое время выполнения задания — 7 минут.
Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски 1-6 частями предложений А-G. Одна из частей в списке А-G лишняя. Перенесите ответы в таблицу.
A substance produced by disease-transmitting in sects could 1) _______ . Mosquitoes and blackflies transmit malaria and river blindness respec
tively, both of which 2) _______ .
However, scientists have discovered, in some of these insects, a substance called a peptide which can 3) _______ . Recently introduced techniques have allowed researchers to study these minute insects in order to 4) _______ . Professor John Wells said that his team had discovered that the peptides 5) _______ . He pointed out that if they could identify the genes responsible for producing the substance, they could introduce into the world genetically altered mosquitoes which 6) _______ .
In the wake of these exciting developments, it is hoped that science will be able to eradicate some major tropical diseases sooner rather than later.
A. were incapable of spreading the disease.
B. kill the viruses and parasites they carry.
C. provide the key to fighting these same diseases.
D. cause a large number of deaths every year.
E. find out more about the peptides.
F. were active against parasites.
G. were able to spread the disease.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Задания A15-A21
Рекомендуемое время выполнения задания — 15 минут.
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания А15 — А21, обводя цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую номеру выбранного вами варианта ответа.
I think I’m a good librarian. I love books, and the people who read them, and if that makes me intolerant of the video and computer age, it doesn’t matter much in here. Paul was embarrassed by my job. It didn’t fit in with his creative Director image at dinner parties. He’d rather I had either stayed at home, and then he could continue to make jokes about me being the last housewife in captivity; or else that I had found some trendy, highly-paid job in the media. When I pointed out that I did work in the media, it just wasn’t very highly paid, he would look pained.
I’ve always been addicted to the printed word. A former headmistress once said, «If Constance had nothing else to read, she’d read the label on a jam jar!»
She meant to be scathing, and the other girls tittered sycophantically, but I thought she was being silly. You could learn a lot from the labels on jam jars… and besides, the other girls would only gaze into space and moon. Was that supposed to be better?
So my first thought, when Kate started school and I decided I could now take a job with a clear conscience, was something to involve me with books. I would have been quite happy in a bookshop, but the humiliation of having his wife working as a shop assistant was more than Paul could contemplate. I tried to argue that all advertising is only selling. I’d heard him propound the argument often enough at dinner parties, when smart women fresh out of university and burning to write had asked him if it wasn’t an awful come down, when you’d got a First in English, to wind up working in advertising? The moment he heard that contemptuous stress on the first syllable, advertising, aa’man, Paul would assume his patient, sophisticated smile and take them through his catechism about selling. But evidently the same didn’t apply to me and bookshops.
«Not even Hatchards?» I’d said. «Then I’d be near your office and we could meet for lunch sometimes. That would be nice…»
«My dear girl, you wouldn’t stand a chance of getting a job in Hatchards!» Paul had answered.
So I did get a year’s course in librarianship, and started work within a month of completing it. There aren’t that many librarians with a First from Oxford, and although I didn’t tell my colleagues, it showed up on my CV and must have impressed the selection committee. They probably thought I wouldn’t stay, but I have spent nearly nine years now in the same public library. It helped to tide me over the utter disorientation I felt when Paul left me, and my raging sense of pain and injustice over the divorce. My incredulity at the distortion of our marriage as expressed in solicitors’ letters, and later my fury over the court proceedings, were tamed and made bearable by the sweet unvarying routine of the Dewey classifying system and the old ladies, the truanting children and the coffee breaks.
A15 Paul disapproved of his wife’s job because it
1) deprived him of a chance to show off.
2) had nothing to do with computers.
3) made her look like a housewife.
4) was not acceptable in their circles.
A16 According to the text, the narrator was critical of her school environment as
1) the headmistress had disapproved of her love for books.
2) the headmistress had teased her for her obsession.
3) the other girls had never shared her love for reading.
4) it had never been a source of excitement for her.
A17 The narrator decided to take a job in a bookshop because
1) it could offer her vast career opportunities.
2) she knew it would bring her a lot of money.
3) her daughter had grown up and did without her help.
4) it was a great place to meet people who read books.
A18 According to the text, the narrator thought «advertising» to be NOT
1) effective.
2) profitable.
3) successful.
4) creative.
A19 In order to start the work in a library the narrator needed
1) a First from Oxford.
2) a year of job experience.
3) professional qualifications.
4) a reference enclosed in CV.
A20 The narrator felt completely confused because of
1) splitting up with her husband.
2) financial difficulties.
3) injustice on the part of old ladies.
4) the disappointment with her job.
A21 The narrator survived the trauma because
1) she and her husband remained friends.
2) she found satisfaction in her job.
3) the court proceedings were just.
4) her own children supported her.
Пример заданий, составляющих раздел «Чтение» в TOEFL
Causes of Ice Ages
Geologists have shown that for about 80 percent of the past 2.5 million years, ice-age conditions have prevailed on the Earth’s surface. During the past one million years, increased glacial conditions have run in cycles of approximately 100,000 years.
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles* as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts* on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation.
These Milankovitch insolation cycles were the dominant theory in ice-age research for much of the twentieth century despite the fact that the match between periods of peak insolation and most intense glaciation were not exact. For example, a cycle of 400,000 years predicted by the Milankovitch theory has never shown up in the climate records obtained through the study of microfossils deposited on the sea floor. Also, recent analysis has shown that the insolation theory predicts peaks of sunlight at intervals of 95,000 and 125,000 years. Climatological data does not support this predicted sunlight peaking. Other damaging evidence was the indication of a precisely measured sudden rise in temperature at a water-filled cave in Nevada, which preceded the increase in solar radiation that was supposed to cause it.
These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists, Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet, thus plunging it into regular cold periods.
The advantage of this theory is that it is not confronted with several of the problems associated with the Milankovitch theory. In particular, the new theory fits well with the analysis of ocean sediments taken from eight locations around the world. This analysis yielded data clearly showing the peak of the last several ice ages with a period of 100,000 years and corresponding to the periods when the Earth’s oscillating inclination takes it through clouds of extraterrestrial debris.
However, many researchers in this field are not yet persuaded by the inclination hypothesis. The main problem is that the amount of dust that falls to the ground when the Earth travels through space debris is relatively small — not enough to produce radical climate changes. Volcanic eruptions, for example, release much greater amounts of ash and dust and have relatively little effect on climate. Supporters have countered that the by-products created by the dust as it vaporizes on entering the atmosphere cause subtle changes to the energy levels. Nevertheless, the necessary physical proof has yet to be found to convince the skeptics.
*wobble: to shake or move from side to side
*tilt: to be in a sloping position
| 1. The word «prevaied» in the passage is closest in meaning to
ruled |
Geologists have shown that for about 80 percent of the past 2.5 million years, ice-age conditions have prevailedon the Earth’s surface. During the past one million years, increased glacial conditions have run in cycles of approximately 100,000 years. |
| 2. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the factors that contribute to glaciation?
They affect the Earth’s spin. Paragraph 2 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation. |
| 3. The phrase «these eccentricities» in the passage refers to all of the following EXCEPT
the various movements of the Earth as it spins |
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First, the planet wobbles as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. Furthermore, the Earth tilts on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricitiesin the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation. |
| 4. Scientists accepted the Milankovitch theory even though
the peaks of sunlight occurred at intervals of 95.000 and 125.000 years |
[Refer to the full passage] |
| 5. In paragraph 4, why does the author suggest the image of a flat plane?
To help the reader visualize the positions and movements of the heavenly bodies Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow ->. |
-> These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists. Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation. the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet, thus plunging it into regular cold periods. |
| 6. The word «it» in the passage refers to
such debris |
These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists. Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet. thus plunging it into regular cold periods. |
| 7. In paragraph 4, the author explains that
Milankovitch did not know about the orbital inclination of the Earth Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow [->]. |
-> These and other problems with the Milankovitch cycles led some researchers to seek alternative explanations for the cyclic arrival of extended ice ages. In the 1990s, it was discovered that the orbital inclination of the Earth to the sun and planets could also be responsible for climate changes. If we imagine a flat plane with the sun in the center and the planets revolving around it, the Earth slowly moves in and out of the flat plane by a few degrees, repeating the cycle every 100,000 years. Two scientists. Muller and MacDonald, have proposed that it is this orbital inclination which is ultimately responsible for the periods of glaciation and warming. They argue that because of the oscillation, the Earth periodically travels through clouds of debris, in the form of dust and meteoroids. Such debris could reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of our planet. thus plunging it into regular cold periods. |
| 8. What problem in the Milankovitch theory was mentioned as being explained by the Muller and MacDonald theory?
The climate records obtained by studying microfossil deposits not matching his predicted cycle |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
| 9. The word «persuaded» in the passage is closest in meaning to
convinced |
However, many researchers in this field are not yetpersuaded by the inclination hypothesis. The main problem is that the amount of dust that falls to the ground when the Earth travels through space debris is relatively small -not enough to produce radical climate changes. Volcanic eruptions, for example, release much greater amounts of ash and dust and have relatively little effect on climate. Supporters have countered that the by-products created by the dust as it vaporizes on entering the atmosphere cause subtle changes to the energy levels. Nevertheless, the necessary physical proof has yet to be found to convince the skeptics. |
| 10. What problem is associated with the Muller and MacDonald theory?
The amount of debris that is released from volcanoes is proportional to the amount of interstellar dust. |
[Refer to the full passage.] |
| 11. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
When the Earth is at its furthest from the sun, less sunlight reaches the surface. Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square that shows where the sentence should be added. |
Many different factors may contribute to these increases in glaciation at regular intervals throughout Earth’s more geologically recent history. [A] The three most prominent factors probably relate to the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. This varies over time for three main reasons. First. the planet wobbles as it spins, due to the pull of the sun and moon. [B] Furthermore, the Earth tilts on its axis and the degree of tilt changes over time. [C]Finally, the orbit of the Earth around the sun is elliptical and the length of the major axis of the ellipse changes over a period of about 100,000 years. [D] A mathematician named Milutin Milankovitch discovered in the 1930s that the pattern of insolation, or sunlight, predicted by these eccentricities in the Earth’s movement matched the period of the last several eras of intense glaciation. |
| 12. Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the flaws in the ice-age theories to which they relate. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points.
Write the letters of the answer choices in the spaces where they belong. |
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Answer Choices A) Data of climate records not coinciding with predicted intervals of sunlight |
Flaws in the Milankovitch Cycles Theory * * * * Flaws in the Muller and MacDonald Theory * * * |
The reading argues that there are some causes that made little ice age, however, the lecturer finds all the ideas dubious and presents some evidence to refute them all.
The author argues that disruption of ocean currents might have caused to cool the weather. Conversely, the lecturer brings up the idea that disruption of the Gulf Stream happened just in Europe and the United States, however, the ice age occurred in the sough hemisphere like New Zealand and South Africa as well. Hence, this cannot describe the little ice age.
Second, the reading passage holds the view that volcanic eruption made a dust cloud that blocked sunlight to reach earth’s surface. In contrast, the professor underlines the fact that although it is true that eruption of volcanic caused to make a dusty cloud that led to cooling temperature, this dust could have produced visual effects that everyone could have noticed them such as brown snow. However, there were not any report during ice age about them and people had a routine life.
Third, the reading asserts that a large decrease of human beings’ population caused to cool temperature by using fewer trees and absorb a large amount of carbon dioxide. on the contrast, the speaker dismisses this issue due to the fact that population came back to the previous level after declining, hence, they started cutting down trees to make fuel and food. In addition, the forest which mentioned in the reading was not large enough to cause a long-term global warming.