Sign language like asl is егэ - Помощь в подготовке к экзаменам и поступлению

“The dark ages for Deaf education in America” began in

1)  1817.

2)  1880.

3)  1920.

4)  1960.

American Sign Language

Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear. It affects about a billion people on earth. Around a hundred million of these are completely deaf and require special ways of communicating. One of these ways is sign language. Sign language is a language that uses hand gestures that are modified by facial expressions. Hand gestures are mainly used for words, while most grammar comes from facial expressions. American Sign Language or ASL is a language used by the Deaf community in the USA.

ASL is surrounded by a lot of myths and misconceptions. One of the most common myths is that it is simply a visual code for English and not a real language. In fact, ASL and English are two completely separate languages, each with their own grammar. Although ASL does sometimes use fingerspelling, when each letter of a word is spelled out by a particular gesture, it is mostly used for names. Another popular misconception is that ASL is a universal language understood by all signers in the world. Actually, there are hundreds of sign languages, all naturally developed by the Deaf communities in different countries.

It is interesting that ASL is specific to the USA, while other Englishspeaking countries, such as the UK or Australia have their own sign languages. In a way, due to its history, ASL is closer to French Sign Language than it is to British Sign Language.

The origins of ASL can be traced back to a couple of influences. In the 1600s the first regional sign languages naturally developed in the American colonies. They appeared in places like Martha’s Vineyard, where a large number of deaf people happened to be part of the community. Another major influence was French Sign Language. In 1817 Laurent Clerc, a deaf teacher from France, and Thomas Gallaudet, a hearing American educator, founded the first American school for the deaf in Hartford, Connecticut. The blending of regional sign language and French Sign Language formed the basis of ASL today.

In the 19th century ASL flourished through Deaf schools, which had great success utilizing a combination of ASL and written English. However, a change in Deaf education occurred in 1880 that is still affecting the Deaf community today. In the 2nd International Congress on Deaf Education that met in Milan and where no deaf people were allowed to participate in the discussion of sign language, the majority voted in favor of oral education for all deaf children. This meant teaching them to read lips and imitate speech. It was believed that the exaggerated facial expressions, which include movements of eyes, eyebrows, mouth, tongue and lips and are part of any sign language, were unpleasant to hearing people and could even horrify them. In addition, sign languages were thought to have no grammar.

In the following 40 years over 80% of the Deaf schools in the USA, as well as in many other countries, switched to an oral method of instruction. This became known as “the dark ages for Deaf education in America”. The number of deaf teachers in the schools dropped significantly, as they were considered inferior, unable to teach the children speech. Students were not allowed to use ASL during the lessons. Fortunately, the children in these schools still used ASL between and after classes to exchange information and just talk to each other. The effectiveness of the oral approach remained a contentious issue for the next century and a half, with a resurgence of ASL in the 1960s.

Источник

«Canadian Sign Language» redirects here. For French Canadian Sign Language, see Quebec Sign Language. For the sign language specific to Canada’s Atlantic provinces, see Maritime Sign Language.

American Sign Language

Native to	United States, Canada
Region	English-speaking North America
Signers	Native signers: 730,000 (2006)^[1] L2 signers: 130,000 (2006)^[1]
Language family	French Sign-based (possibly a creole with Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language) American Sign Language
Dialects	Black American Sign Bolivian Sign Burundian Sign Costa Rican Sign Ghanaian Sign Nigerian Sign Francophone African Sign Québec Sign
Writing system	None are widely accepted si5s (ASLwrite), ASL-phabet, Stokoe notation, SignWriting
Official status
Official language in	none
Recognised minority language in	Ontario only in domains of: legislation, education and judiciary proceedings.^[2] 45 US states formally recognize ASL in state law; Five states recognize ASL for educational foreign language requirements, but have not formally recognized ASL as a language in their legislatures.^[3]
Language codes
ISO 639-3	`ase`
Glottolog	`asli1244` ASL family `amer1248` ASL proper
Areas where ASL or a dialect/derivative thereof is the national sign language Areas where ASL is in significant use alongside another sign language

American Sign Language (ASL) is a natural language^[4] that serves as the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States of America and most of Anglophone Canada. ASL is a complete and organized visual language that is expressed by employing both manual and nonmanual features.^[5] Besides North America, dialects of ASL and ASL-based creoles are used in many countries around the world, including much of West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia. ASL is also widely learned as a second language, serving as a lingua franca. ASL is most closely related to French Sign Language (LSF). It has been proposed that ASL is a creole language of LSF, although ASL shows features atypical of creole languages, such as agglutinative morphology.

ASL originated in the early 19th century in the American School for the Deaf (ASD) in West Hartford, Connecticut, from a situation of language contact. Since then, ASL use has been propagated widely by schools for the deaf and Deaf community organizations. Despite its wide use, no accurate count of ASL users has been taken. Reliable estimates for American ASL users range from 250,000 to 500,000 persons, including a number of children of deaf adults and other hearing individuals.

ASL signs have a number of phonemic components, such as movement of the face, the torso, and the hands. ASL is not a form of pantomime although iconicity plays a larger role in ASL than in spoken languages. English loan words are often borrowed through fingerspelling, although ASL grammar is unrelated to that of English. ASL has verbal agreement and aspectual marking and has a productive system of forming agglutinative classifiers. Many linguists believe ASL to be a subject–verb–object language. However, there are several alternative proposals to account for ASL word order.

Classification[edit]

Travis Dougherty explains and demonstrates the ASL alphabet. Voice-over interpretation by Gilbert G. Lensbower.

ASL emerged as a language in the American School for the Deaf (ASD), founded by Thomas Gallaudet in 1817,^[6]^: 7 which brought together Old French Sign Language, various village sign languages, and home sign systems. ASL was created in that situation by language contact.^[7]^: 11^[a] ASL was influenced by its forerunners but distinct from all of them.^[6]^: 7

The influence of French Sign Language (LSF) on ASL is readily apparent; for example, it has been found that about 58% of signs in modern ASL are cognate to Old French Sign Language signs.^[6]^: 7^[7]^: 14 However, that is far less than the standard 80% measure used to determine whether related languages are actually dialects.^[7]^: 14 That suggests that nascent ASL was highly affected by the other signing systems brought by the ASD students although the school’s original director, Laurent Clerc, taught in LSF.^[6]^: 7^[7]^: 14 In fact, Clerc reported that he often learned the students’ signs rather than conveying LSF:^[7]^: 14

I see, however, and I say it with regret, that any efforts that we have made or may still be making, to do better than, we have inadvertently fallen somewhat back of Abbé de l’Épée. Some of us have learned and still learn signs from uneducated pupils, instead of learning them from well instructed and experienced teachers.

— Clerc, 1852, from Woodward 1978:336

It has been proposed that ASL is a creole in which LSF is the superstrate language and the native village sign languages are substrate languages.^[8]^: 493 However, more recent research has shown that modern ASL does not share many of the structural features that characterize creole languages.^[8]^: 501 ASL may have begun as a creole and then undergone structural change over time, but it is also possible that it was never a creole-type language.^[8]^: 501 There are modality-specific reasons that sign languages tend towards agglutination, such as the ability to simultaneously convey information via the face, head, torso, and other body parts. That might override creole characteristics such as the tendency towards isolating morphology.^[8]^: 502 Additionally, Clerc and Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet may have used an artificially constructed form of manually coded language in instruction rather than true LSF.^[8]^: 497

Although the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia share English as a common oral and written language, ASL is not mutually intelligible with either British Sign Language (BSL) or Auslan.^[9]^: 68 All three languages show degrees of borrowing from English, but that alone is not sufficient for cross-language comprehension.^[9]^: 68 It has been found that a relatively high percentage (37–44%) of ASL signs have similar translations in Auslan, which for oral languages would suggest that they belong to the same language family.^[9]^: 69 However, that does not seem justified historically for ASL and Auslan, and it is likely that the resemblance is caused by the higher degree of iconicity in sign languages in general as well as contact with English.^[9]^: 70

American Sign Language is growing in popularity in many states. Many high school and university students desire to take it as a foreign language, but until recently, it was usually not considered a creditable foreign language elective. ASL users, however, have a very distinct culture, and they interact very differently when they talk. Their facial expressions and hand movements reflect what they are communicating. They also have their own sentence structure, which sets the language apart.^[10]

American Sign Language is now being accepted by many colleges as a language eligible for foreign language course credit;^[11] many states are making it mandatory to accept it as such.^[12] in some states however, this is only true with regard to high school coursework.

History[edit]

A sign language interpreter at a presentation

Prior to the birth of ASL, sign language had been used by various communities in the United States.^[6]^: 5 In the United States, as elsewhere in the world, hearing families with deaf children have historically employed ad hoc home sign, which often reaches much higher levels of sophistication than gestures used by hearing people in spoken conversation.^[6]^: 5 As early as 1541 at first contact by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, there were reports that the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains widely spoke a sign language to communicate across vast national and linguistic lines.^[13]^: 80

In the 19th century, a «triangle» of village sign languages developed in New England: one in Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts; one in Henniker, New Hampshire, and one in Sandy River Valley, Maine.^[14] Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL), which was particularly important for the history of ASL, was used mainly in Chilmark, Massachusetts.^[6]^: 5–6 Due to intermarriage in the original community of English settlers of the 1690s, and the recessive nature of genetic deafness, Chilmark had a high 4% rate of genetic deafness.^[6]^: 5–6 MVSL was used even by hearing residents whenever a deaf person was present,^[6]^: 5–6 and also in some situations where spoken language would be ineffective or inappropriate, such as during church sermons or between boats at sea.^[15]

ASL is thought to have originated in the American School for the Deaf (ASD), founded in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1817.^[6]^: 4 Originally known as The American Asylum, At Hartford, For The Education And Instruction Of The Deaf And Dumb, the school was founded by the Yale graduate and divinity student Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet.^[16]^[17] Gallaudet, inspired by his success in demonstrating the learning abilities of a young deaf girl Alice Cogswell, traveled to Europe in order to learn deaf pedagogy from European institutions.^[16] Ultimately, Gallaudet chose to adopt the methods of the French Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris, and convinced Laurent Clerc, an assistant to the school’s founder Charles-Michel de l’Épée, to accompany him back to the United States.^[16]^[b] Upon his return, Gallaudet founded the ASD on April 15, 1817.^[16]

The largest group of students during the first seven decades of the school were from Martha’s Vineyard, and they brought MVSL with them.^[7]^: 10 There were also 44 students from around Henniker, New Hampshire, and 27 from the Sandy River valley in Maine, each of which had their own village sign language.^[7]^: 11^[c] Other students brought knowledge of their own home signs.^[7]^: 11 Laurent Clerc, the first teacher at ASD, taught using French Sign Language (LSF), which itself had developed in the Parisian school for the deaf established in 1755.^[6]^: 7 From that situation of language contact, a new language emerged, now known as ASL.^[6]^: 7

American Sign Language Convention of March 2008 in Austin, Texas

More schools for the deaf were founded after ASD, and knowledge of ASL spread to those schools.^[6]^: 7 In addition, the rise of Deaf community organizations bolstered the continued use of ASL.^[6]^: 8 Societies such as the National Association of the Deaf and the National Fraternal Society of the Deaf held national conventions that attracted signers from across the country.^[7]^: 13 All of that contributed to ASL’s wide use over a large geographical area, atypical of a sign language.^[7]^: 14^[7]^: 12

While oralism, an approach to educating deaf students focusing on oral language, had previously been used in American schools, the Milan Congress made it dominant and effectively banned the use of sign languages at schools in the United States and Europe. However, the efforts of Deaf advocates and educators, more lenient enforcement of the Congress’ mandate, and the use of ASL in religious education and proselytism ensured greater use and documentation compared to European sign languages, albeit more influenced by fingerspelled loanwords and borrowed idioms from English as students were societally pressured to achieve fluency in spoken language.^[20] Nevertheless, oralism remained the prominent method of deaf education up to the 1950s.^[21] Linguists did not consider sign language to be true «language» but as something inferior.^[21] Recognition of the legitimacy of ASL was achieved by William Stokoe, a linguist who arrived at Gallaudet University in 1955 when that was still the dominant assumption.^[21] Aided by the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, Stokoe argued for manualism, the use of sign language in deaf education.^[21]^[22] Stokoe noted that sign language shares the important features that oral languages have as a means of communication, and even devised a transcription system for ASL.^[21] In doing so, Stokoe revolutionized both deaf education and linguistics.^[21] In the 1960s, ASL was sometimes referred to as «Ameslan», but that term is now considered obsolete.^[23]

Population[edit]

Counting the number of ASL signers is difficult because ASL users have never been counted by the American census.^[24]^: 1^[d] The ultimate source for current estimates of the number of ASL users in the United States is a report for the National Census of the Deaf Population (NCDP) by Schein and Delk (1974).^[24]^: 17 Based on a 1972 survey of the NCDP, Schein and Delk provided estimates consistent with a signing population between 250,000 and 500,000.^[24]^: 26 The survey did not distinguish between ASL and other forms of signing; in fact, the name «ASL» was not yet in widespread use.^[24]^: 18

Incorrect figures are sometimes cited for the population of ASL users in the United States based on misunderstandings of known statistics.^[24]^: 20 Demographics of the deaf population have been confused with those of ASL use since adults who become deaf late in life rarely use ASL in the home.^[24]^: 21 That accounts for currently-cited estimations that are greater than 500,000; such mistaken estimations can reach as high as 15,000,000.^[24]^: 1, 21 A 100,000-person lower bound has been cited for ASL users; the source of that figure is unclear, but it may be an estimate of prelingual deafness, which is correlated with but not equivalent to signing.^[24]^: 22

ASL is sometimes incorrectly cited as the third- or fourth-most-spoken language in the United States.^[24]^: 15, 22 Those figures misquote Schein and Delk (1974), who actually concluded that ASL speakers constituted the third-largest population «requiring an interpreter in court».^[24]^: 15, 22 Although that would make ASL the third-most used language among monolinguals other than English, it does not imply that it is the fourth-most-spoken language in the United States since speakers of other languages may also speak English.^[24]^: 21–22

Geographic distribution[edit]

ASL is used throughout Anglo-America.^[7]^: 12 That contrasts with Europe, where a variety of sign languages are used within the same continent.^[7]^: 12 The unique situation of ASL seems to have been caused by the proliferation of ASL through schools influenced by the American School for the Deaf, wherein ASL originated, and the rise of community organizations for the Deaf.^[7]^: 12–14

Throughout West Africa, ASL-based sign languages are signed by educated Deaf adults.^[25]^: 410 Such languages, imported by boarding schools, are often considered by associations to be the official sign languages of their countries and are named accordingly, such as Nigerian Sign Language, Ghanaian Sign Language.^[25]^: 410 Such signing systems are found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Liberia, Mauritania, Mali, Nigeria, and Togo.^[25]^: 406 Due to lack of data, it is still an open question how similar those sign languages are to the variety of ASL used in America.^[25]^: 411

In addition to the aforementioned West African countries, ASL is reported to be used as a first language in Barbados, Bolivia, Cambodia^[26] (alongside Cambodian Sign Language), the Central African Republic, Chad, China (Hong Kong), the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Jamaica, Kenya, Madagascar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Zimbabwe.^[1] ASL is also used as a lingua franca throughout the deaf world, widely learned as a second language.^[1]

Regional variation[edit]

Sign production[edit]

Sign production can often vary according to location. Signers from the South tend to sign with more flow and ease. Native signers from New York have been reported as signing comparatively quicker and sharper. Sign production of native Californian signers has also been reported as being fast. Research on that phenomenon often concludes that the fast-paced production for signers from the coasts could be due to the fast-paced nature of living in large metropolitan areas. That conclusion also supports how the ease with which Southern sign could be caused by the easygoing environment of the South in comparison to that of the coasts.^[27]

Sign production can also vary depending on age and native language. For example, sign production of letters may vary in older signers. Slight differences in finger spelling production can be a signal of age. Additionally, signers who learned American Sign Language as a second language vary in production. For Deaf signers who learned a different sign language before learning American Sign Language, qualities of their native language may show in their ASL production. Some examples of that varied production include fingerspelling towards the body, instead of away from it, and signing certain movement from bottom to top, instead of top to bottom. Hearing people who learn American Sign Language also have noticeable differences in signing production. The most notable production difference of hearing people learning American Sign Language is their rhythm and arm posture.^[28]

Sign variants[edit]

Most popularly, there are variants of the signs for English words such as «birthday», «pizza», «Halloween», «early», and «soon», just a sample of the most commonly recognized signs with variants based on regional change. The sign for «school» is commonly varied between black and white signers. The variation between signs produced by black and white signers is sometimes referred to as Black American Sign Language.^[29]

History and implications[edit]

The prevalence of residential Deaf schools can account for much of the regional variance of signs and sign productions across the United States. Deaf schools often serve students of the state in which the school resides. That limited access to signers from other regions, combined with the residential quality of Deaf Schools promoted specific use of certain sign variants. Native signers did not have much access to signers from other regions during the beginning years of their education. It is hypothesized that because of that seclusion, certain variants of a sign prevailed over others due to the choice of variant used by the student of the school/signers in the community.

However, American Sign Language does not appear to be vastly varied in comparison to other signed languages. That is because when Deaf education was beginning in the United States, many educators flocked to the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, whose central location for the first generation of educators in Deaf education to learn American Sign Language allows ASL to be more standardized than its variant.^[29]

Varieties[edit]

About – General sign (Canadian ASL)^[30]

About – Atlantic Variation (Canadian ASL)^[30]

About – Ontario Variation (Canadian ASL)^[30]

Varieties of ASL are found throughout the world. There is little difficulty in comprehension among the varieties of the United States and Canada.^[1]

Just as there are accents in speech, there are regional accents in sign. People from the South sign slower than people in the North—even people from northern and southern Indiana have different styles.

Mutual intelligibility among those ASL varieties is high, and the variation is primarily lexical.^[1] For example, there are three different words for English about in Canadian ASL; the standard way, and two regional variations (Atlantic and Ontario).^[30] Variation may also be phonological, meaning that the same sign may be signed in a different way depending on the region. For example, an extremely common type of variation is between the handshapes /1/, /L/, and /5/ in signs with one handshape.^[31]

There is also a distinct variety of ASL used by the Black Deaf community.^[1] Black ASL evolved as a result of racially segregated schools in some states, which included the residential schools for the deaf.^[32]^: 4 Black ASL differs from standard ASL in vocabulary, phonology, and some grammatical structure.^[1]^[32]^: 4 While African American English (AAE) is generally viewed as more innovating than standard English, Black ASL is more conservative than standard ASL, preserving older forms of many signs.^[32]^: 4 Black sign language speakers use more two-handed signs than in mainstream ASL, are less likely to show assimilatory lowering of signs produced on the forehead (e.g. KNOW) and use a wider signing space.^[32]^: 4 Modern Black ASL borrows a number of idioms from AAE; for instance, the AAE idiom «I feel you» is calqued into Black ASL.^[32]^: 10

ASL is used internationally as a lingua franca, and a number of closely related sign languages derived from ASL are used in many different countries.^[1] Even so, there have been varying degrees of divergence from standard ASL in those imported ASL varieties. Bolivian Sign Language is reported to be a dialect of ASL, no more divergent than other acknowledged dialects.^[33] On the other hand, it is also known that some imported ASL varieties have diverged to the extent of being separate languages. For example, Malaysian Sign Language, which has ASL origins, is no longer mutually comprehensible with ASL and must be considered its own language.^[34] For some imported ASL varieties, such as those used in West Africa, it is still an open question how similar they are to American ASL.^[25]^: 411

When communicating with hearing English speakers, ASL-speakers often use what is commonly called Pidgin Signed English (PSE) or ‘contact signing’, a blend of English structure with ASL vocabulary.^[1]^[35] Various types of PSE exist, ranging from highly English-influenced PSE (practically relexified English) to PSE which is quite close to ASL lexically and grammatically, but may alter some subtle features of ASL grammar.^[35] Fingerspelling may be used more often in PSE than it is normally used in ASL.^[36] There have been some constructed sign languages, known as Manually Coded English (MCE), which match English grammar exactly and simply replace spoken words with signs; those systems are not considered to be varieties of ASL.^[1]^[35]

Tactile ASL (TASL) is a variety of ASL used throughout the United States by and with the deaf-blind.^[1] It is particularly common among those with Usher’s syndrome.^[1] It results in deafness from birth followed by loss of vision later in life; consequently, those with Usher’s syndrome often grow up in the Deaf community using ASL, and later transition to TASL.^[37] TASL differs from ASL in that signs are produced by touching the palms, and there are some grammatical differences from standard ASL in order to compensate for the lack of nonmanual signing.^[1]

ASL changes over time and from generation to generation. The sign for telephone has changed as the shape of phones and the manner of holding them have changed.^[38] The development of telephones with screens has also changed ASL, encouraging the use of signs that can be seen on small screens.^[38]

Stigma[edit]

In 2013, the White House published a response to a petition that gained over 37,000 signatures to officially recognize American Sign Language as a community language and a language of instruction in schools. The response is titled «there shouldn’t be any stigma about American Sign Language» and addressed that ASL is a vital language for the Deaf and hard of hearing. Stigmas associated with sign languages and the use of sign for educating children often lead to the absence of sign during periods in children’s lives when they can access languages most effectively.^[39] Scholars such as Beth S. Benedict advocate not only for bilingualism (using ASL and English training) but also for early childhood intervention for children who are deaf. York University psychologist Ellen Bialystok has also campaigned for bilingualism, arguing that those who are bilingual acquire cognitive skills that may help to prevent dementia later in life.^[40]

Most children born to deaf parents are hearing.^[41]^: 192 Known as CODAs («Children Of Deaf Adults»), they are often more culturally Deaf than deaf children, most of whom are born to hearing parents.^[41]^: 192 Unlike many deaf children, CODAs acquire ASL as well as Deaf cultural values and behaviors from birth.^[41]^: 192 Such bilingual hearing children may be mistakenly labeled as being «slow learners» or as having «language difficulties» because of preferential attitudes towards spoken language.^[41]^: 195

Writing systems[edit]

Although there is no well-established writing system for ASL,^[42] written sign language dates back almost two centuries. The first systematic writing system for a sign language seems to be that of Roch-Ambroise Auguste Bébian, developed in 1825.^[43]^: 153 However, written sign language remained marginal among the public.^[43]^: 154 In the 1960s, linguist William Stokoe created Stokoe notation specifically for ASL. It is alphabetic, with a letter or diacritic for every phonemic (distinctive) hand shape, orientation, motion, and position, though it lacks any representation of facial expression, and is better suited for individual words than for extended passages of text.^[44] Stokoe used that system for his 1965 A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles.^[45]

SignWriting, proposed in 1974 by Valerie Sutton,^[43]^: 154 is the first writing system to gain use among the public and the first writing system for sign languages to be included in the Unicode Standard.^[46] SignWriting consists of more than 5000 distinct iconic graphs/glyphs.^[43]^: 154 Currently, it is in use in many schools for the Deaf, particularly in Brazil, and has been used in International Sign forums with speakers and researchers in more than 40 countries, including Brazil, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, Tunisia, and the United States. Sutton SignWriting has both a printed and an electronically produced form so that persons can use the system anywhere that oral languages are written (personal letters, newspapers, and media, academic research). The systematic examination of the International Sign Writing Alphabet (ISWA) as an equivalent usage structure to the International Phonetic Alphabet for spoken languages has been proposed.^[47] According to some researchers, SignWriting is not a phonemic orthography and does not have a one-to-one map from phonological forms to written forms.^[43]^: 163 That assertion has been disputed, and the process for each country to look at the ISWA and create a phonemic/morphemic assignment of features of each sign language was proposed by researchers Msc. Roberto Cesar Reis da Costa and Madson Barreto in a thesis forum on June 23, 2014.^[48] The SignWriting community has an open project on Wikimedia Labs to support the various Wikimedia projects on Wikimedia Incubator^[49] and elsewhere involving SignWriting. The ASL Wikipedia request was marked as eligible in 2008^[50] and the test ASL Wikipedia has 50 articles written in ASL using SignWriting.

The most widely used transcription system among academics is HamNoSys, developed at the University of Hamburg.^[43]^: 155 Based on Stokoe Notation, HamNoSys was expanded to about 200 graphs in order to allow transcription of any sign language.^[43]^: 155 Phonological features are usually indicated with single symbols, though the group of features that make up a handshape is indicated collectively with a symbol.^[43]^: 155

Comparison of ASL writing systems. Sutton SignWriting is on the left, followed by Si5s, then Stokoe notation in the center, with SignFont and its simplified derivation ASL-phabet on the right.

Several additional candidates for written ASL have appeared over the years, including SignFont, ASL-phabet, and Si5s.

For English-speaking audiences, ASL is often glossed using English words. Such glosses are typically all-capitalized and are arranged in ASL order. For example, the ASL sentence DOG NOW CHASE>IX=3 CAT, meaning «the dog is chasing the cat», uses NOW to mark ASL progressive aspect and shows ASL verbal inflection for the third person (written with >IX=3). However, glossing is not used to write the language for speakers of ASL.^[42]

Phonology[edit]

Phonemic handshape /2/
[+ closed thumb]^[6]^: 12

Phonemic handshape /3/
[− closed thumb]^[6]^: 12

Each sign in ASL is composed of a number of distinctive components, generally referred to as parameters. A sign may use one hand or both. All signs can be described using the five parameters involved in signed languages, which are handshape, movement, palm orientation, location and nonmanual markers.^[6]^: 10 Just as phonemes of sound distinguish meaning in spoken languages, those parameters are the phonemes that distinguish meaning in signed languages like ASL.^[51] Changing any one of them may change the meaning of a sign, as illustrated by the ASL signs THINK and DISAPPOINTED:

THINK^[6]^: 10

Handshape	Closed fist with index finger extended
Orientation	Facing signer’s body
Location	Tip of finger in contact with forehead
Movement	Unidirectional single contacting movement

DISAPPOINTED^[6]^: 10

Handshape	(as for THINK)
Orientation	(as for THINK)
Location	Tip of finger in contact with chin
Movement	(as for THINK)

There are also meaningful nonmanual signals in ASL,^[6]^: 49 which may include movement of the eyebrows, the cheeks, the nose, the head, the torso, and the eyes.^[6]^: 49

William Stokoe proposed that such components are analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages.^[43]^: 601:15^[e] There has also been a proposal that they are analogous to classes like place and manner of articulation.^[43]^: 601:15 As in spoken languages, those phonological units can be split into distinctive features.^[6]^: 12 For instance, the handshapes /2/ and /3/ are distinguished by the presence or absence of the feature [± closed thumb], as illustrated to the right.^[6]^: 12 ASL has processes of allophony and phonotactic restrictions.^[6]^: 12, 19 There is ongoing research into whether ASL has an analog of syllables in spoken language.^[6]^: 1

Grammar[edit]

Two men and a woman signing

Morphology[edit]

ASL has a rich system of verbal inflection, which involves both grammatical aspect: how the action of verbs flows in time—and agreement marking.^[6]^: 27–28 Aspect can be marked by changing the manner of movement of the verb; for example, continuous aspect is marked by incorporating rhythmic, circular movement, while punctual aspect is achieved by modifying the sign so that it has a stationary hand position.^[6]^: 27–28 Verbs may agree with both the subject and the object, and are marked for number and reciprocity.^[6]^: 28 Reciprocity is indicated by using two one-handed signs; for example, the sign SHOOT, made with an L-shaped handshape with inward movement of the thumb, inflects to SHOOT_[reciprocal], articulated by having two L-shaped hands «shooting» at each other.^[6]^: 29

ASL has a productive system of classifiers, which are used to classify objects and their movement in space.^[6]^: 26 For example, a rabbit running downhill would use a classifier consisting of a bent V classifier handshape with a downhill-directed path; if the rabbit is hopping, the path is executed with a bouncy manner.^[6]^: 26 In general, classifiers are composed of a «classifier handshape» bound to a «movement root».^[6]^: 26 The classifier handshape represents the object as a whole, incorporating such attributes as surface, depth, and shape, and is usually very iconic.^[52] The movement root consists of a path, a direction and a manner.^[6]^: 26

Fingerspelling[edit]

The American manual alphabet and numbers

ASL possesses a set of 26 signs known as the American manual alphabet, which can be used to spell out words from the English language.^[53] Such signs make use of the 19 handshapes of ASL. For example, the signs for ‘p’ and ‘k’ use the same handshape but different orientations. A common misconception is that ASL consists only of fingerspelling; although such a method (Rochester Method) has been used, it is not ASL.^[36]

Fingerspelling is a form of borrowing, a linguistic process wherein words from one language are incorporated into another.^[36] In ASL, fingerspelling is used for proper nouns and for technical terms with no native ASL equivalent.^[36] There are also some other loan words which are fingerspelled, either very short English words or abbreviations of longer English words, e.g. O-N from English ‘on’, and A-P-T from English ‘apartment’.^[36] Fingerspelling may also be used to emphasize a word that would normally be signed otherwise.^[36]

Syntax[edit]

ASL is a subject–verb–object (SVO) language, but various phenomena affect that basic word order.^[54] Basic SVO sentences are signed without any pauses:^[29]

FATHER

LOVE

CHILD

«The father loves the child.»^[29]

However, other word orders may also occur since ASL allows the topic of a sentence to be moved to sentence-initial position, a phenomenon known as topicalization.^[55] In object–subject–verb (OSV) sentences, the object is topicalized, marked by a forward head-tilt and a pause:^[56]

CHILD^topic,

FATHER

LOVE

«The father loves the child.»^[56]

Besides, word orders can be obtained through the phenomenon of subject copy in which the subject is repeated at the end of the sentence, accompanied by head nodding for clarification or emphasis:^[29]

FATHER

LOVE

CHILD

FATHER^copy

«The father loves the child.»^[29]

ASL also allows null subject sentences whose subject is implied, rather than stated explicitly. Subjects can be copied even in a null subject sentence, and the subject is then omitted from its original position, yielding a verb–object–subject (VOS) construction:^[56]

LOVE

CHILD

FATHER^copy

«The father loves the child.»^[56]

Topicalization, accompanied with a null subject and a subject copy, can produce yet another word order, object–verb–subject (OVS).

CHILD^topic,

LOVE

FATHER^copy

«The father loves the child.»^[56]

Those properties of ASL allow it a variety of word orders, leading many to question which is the true, underlying, «basic» order. There are several other proposals that attempt to account for the flexibility of word order in ASL. One proposal is that languages like ASL are best described with a topic–comment structure whose words are ordered by their importance in the sentence, rather than by their syntactic properties.^[57] Another hypothesis is that ASL exhibits free word order, in which syntax is not encoded in word order but can be encoded by other means such as head nods, eyebrow movement, and body position.^[54]

Iconicity[edit]

Common misconceptions are that signs are iconically self-explanatory, that they are a transparent imitation of what they mean, or even that they are pantomime.^[58] In fact, many signs bear no resemblance to their referent because they were originally arbitrary symbols, or their iconicity has been obscured over time.^[58] Even so, in ASL iconicity plays a significant role; a high percentage of signs resemble their referents in some way.^[59] That may be because the medium of sign, three-dimensional space, naturally allows more iconicity than oral language.^[58]

In the era of the influential linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, it was assumed that the mapping between form and meaning in language must be completely arbitrary.^[59] Although onomatopoeia is a clear exception, since words like ‘choo-choo’ bear clear resemblance to the sounds that they mimic, the Saussurean approach was to treat them as marginal exceptions.^[60] ASL, with its significant inventory of iconic signs, directly challenges that theory.^[61]

Research on acquisition of pronouns in ASL has shown that children do not always take advantage of the iconic properties of signs when they interpret their meaning.^[62] It has been found that when children acquire the pronoun «you», the iconicity of the point (at the child) is often confused, being treated more like a name.^[63] That is a similar finding to research in oral languages on pronoun acquisition. It has also been found that iconicity of signs does not affect immediate memory and recall; less iconic signs are remembered just as well as highly-iconic signs.^[64]

Notes[edit]

^ In particular, Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language, Henniker Sign Language, and Sandy River Valley Sign Language were brought to the school by students. They, in turn, appear to have been influenced by early British Sign Language and did not involve input from indigenous Native American sign systems. See Padden (2010:11), Lane, Pillard & French (2000:17), and Johnson & Schembri (2007:68).
^ The Abbé Charles-Michel de l’Épée, founder of the Parisian school Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris, was the first to acknowledge that sign language could be used to educate the deaf. An oft-repeated folk tale states that while visiting a parishioner, Épee met two deaf daughters conversing with each other using LSF. The mother explained that her daughters were being educated privately by means of pictures. Épée is said to have been inspired by those deaf children when he established the first educational institution for the deaf.^[18]
^ Whereas deafness was genetically recessive on Martha’s Vineyard, it was dominant in Henniker. On the one hand, this dominance likely aided the development of sign language in Henniker since families would be more likely to have the critical mass of deaf people necessary for the propagation of signing. On the other hand, in Martha’s Vineyard the deaf were more likely to have more hearing relatives, which may have fostered a sense of shared identity that led to more inter-group communication than in Henniker.^[19]
^ Although some surveys of smaller scope measure ASL use, such as the California Department of Education recording ASL use in the home when children begin school, ASL use in the general American population has not been directly measured. See Mitchell et al. (2006:1).
^ Stokoe himself termed them cheremes, but other linguists have referred to them as phonemes. See Bahan (1996:11).

References[edit]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ American Sign Language at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
^ Province of Ontario (2007). «Bill 213: An Act to recognize sign language as an official language in Ontario». Archived from the original on 2018-12-24. Retrieved 2015-07-23.
^ Education Policy Counsel at National Association of the Deaf. «States that Recognize American Sign Language as a Foreign Language» (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
^ About American Sign Language, Deaf Research Library, Karen Nakamura
^ «American Sign Language». NIDCD. 2015-08-18. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag Bahan (1996)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Padden (2010)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Kegl (2008)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Johnson & Schembri (2007)
^ «ASL as a Foreign Language Fact Sheet». www.unm.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-04.
^ Wilcox Phd, Sherman (May 2016). «Universities That Accept ASL In Fulfillment Of Foreign Language Requirements». Retrieved May 24, 2018.
^ Burke, Sheila (April 26, 2017). «Bill Passes Requiring Sign Language Students Receive Credit». US News. Archived from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved May 24, 2018.
^ Ceil Lucas, 1995, The Sociolinguistics of the Deaf Community
^ Lane, Pillard & French (2000:17)
^ Groce, Nora Ellen (1985). Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha’s Vineyard. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-27041-1. Retrieved 21 October 2010. everyone here sign.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d «A Brief History of ASD». American School for the Deaf. n.d. Archived from the original on March 1, 2014. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
^ «A Brief History Of The American Asylum, At Hartford, For The Education And Instruction Of The Deaf And Dumb». 1893. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
^
See:
- Ruben, Robert J. (2005). «Sign language: Its history and contribution to the understanding of the biological nature of language». Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 125 (5): 464–7. doi:10.1080/00016480510026287. PMID 16092534. S2CID 1704351.
- Padden, Carol A. (2001). Folk Explanation in Language Survival in: Deaf World: A Historical Reader and Primary Sourcebook, Lois Bragg, Ed. New York: New York University Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-0-8147-9853-9.
^ See Lane, Pillard & French (2000:39).
^ Shaw & Delaporte 2015, p. xii-xiv.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Armstrong & Karchmer (2002)
^ Stokoe, William C. 1960. Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf, Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. . Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo.
^ «American Sign Language, ASL or Ameslan». Handspeak.com. Archived from the original on 2013-06-05. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Mitchell et al. (2006)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Nyst (2010)
^ Benoit Duchateau-Arminjon, 2013, Healing Cambodia One Child at a Time, p. 180.
^ Rogelio, Contreras (November 15, 2002). «Regional, Cultural, and Sociolinguistic Variation of ASL in the United States».
^ Gallaudet Department of Linguistics (2017-09-16), Do sign languages have accents?, archived from the original on 2021-10-30, retrieved 2018-04-27
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Valli, Clayton (2005). Linguistics of American Sign Language: An Introduction. Washington, D.C.: Clerc Books. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-56368-283-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bailey & Dolby (2002:1–2)
^ Lucas, Bayley & Valli (2003:36)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Solomon (2010)
^ Bolivian Sign Language at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
^ Hurlbut (2003, 7. Conclusion)
^ ^a ^b ^c Nakamura, Karen (2008). «About ASL». Deaf Resource Library. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Costello (2008:xxv)
^ Collins (2004:33)
^ ^a ^b Morris, Amanda (2022-07-26). «How Sign Language Evolves as Our World Does». The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-07-28.
^ Newman, Aaron J.; Bavelier, Daphne; Corina, David; Jezzard, Peter; Neville, Helen J. (2002). «A critical period for right hemisphere recruitment in American Sign Language processing». Nature Neuroscience. 5 (1): 76–80. doi:10.1038/nn775. PMID 11753419. S2CID 2745545.
^ Denworth, Ldyia (2014). I Can Hear You Whisper: An Intimate Journey through the Science of Sound and Language. USA: Penguin Group. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-525-95379-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bishop & Hicks (2005)
^ ^a ^b Supalla & Cripps (2011, ASL Gloss as an Intermediary Writing System)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j van der Hulst & Channon (2010)
^ Armstrong, David F., and Michael A. Karchmer. «William C. Stokoe and the Study of Signed Languages.» Sign Language Studies 9.4 (2009): 389-397. Academic Search Premier. Web. 7 June 2012.
^ Stokoe, William C.; Dorothy C. Casterline; Carl G. Croneberg. 1965. A dictionary of American sign languages on linguistic principles. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet College Press
^ Everson, Michael; Slevinski, Stephen; Sutton, Valerie. «Proposal for encoding Sutton SignWriting in the UCS» (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
^ Charles Butler, Center for Sutton Movement Writing, 2014
^ Roberto Costa; Madson Barreto. «SignWriting Symposium Presentation 32». signwriting.org.
^ «Test wikis of sign languages». incubator.wikimedia.org.
^ «Request for ASL Wikipedia». meta.wikimedia.org.
^ Baker, Anne; van den Bogaerde, Beppie; Pfau, Roland; Schermer, Trude (2016). The Linguistics of Sign Languages : An Introduction. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 9789027212306.
^ Valli & Lucas (2000:86)
^ Costello (2008:xxiv)
^ ^a ^b Neidle, Carol (2000). The Syntax of American Sign Language: Functional Categories and Hierarchical Structures. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-262-14067-6.
^ Valli, Clayton (2005). Linguistics of American Sign Language: An Introduction. Washington, D.C.: Clerc Books. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-56368-283-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Valli, Clayton (2005). Linguistics of American Sign Language: An Introduction. Washington, D.C.: Clerc Books. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-56368-283-4.
^ Lillo-Martin, Diane (November 1986). «Two Kinds of Null Arguments in American Sign Language». Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. 4 (4): 415. doi:10.1007/bf00134469. S2CID 170784826.
^ ^a ^b ^c Costello (2008:xxiii)
^ ^a ^b Liddell (2002:60)
^ Liddell (2002:61)
^ Liddell (2002:62)
^ Thompson, Robin L.; Vinson, David P.; Vigliocco, Gabriella (March 2009). «The Link Between Form and Meaning in American Sign Language: Lexical Processing Effects». Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 35 (2): 550–557. doi:10.1037/a0014547. ISSN 0278-7393. PMC 3667647. PMID 19271866.
^ Petitto, Laura A. (1987). «On the autonomy of language and gesture: Evidence from the acquisition of personal pronouns in American sign language». Cognition. 27 (1): 1–52. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(87)90034-5. PMID 3691016. S2CID 31570908.
^ Klima & Bellugi (1979:27)

Bibliography[edit]

Armstrong, David; Karchmer, Michael (2002), «William C. Stokoe and the Study of Signed Languages», in Armstrong, David; Karchmer, Michael; Van Cleve, John (eds.), The Study of Signed Languages, Gallaudet University, pp. xi–xix, ISBN 978-1-56368-123-3, retrieved November 25, 2012
Bahan, Benjamin (1996). Non-Manual Realization of Agreement in American Sign Language (PDF). Boston University. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
Bailey, Carol; Dolby, Kathy (2002). The Canadian dictionary of ASL. Edmonton, AB: The University of Alberta Press. ISBN 978-0888643001.
Bishop, Michele; Hicks, Sherry (2005). «Orange Eyes: Bimodal Bilingualism in Hearing Adults from Deaf Families». Sign Language Studies. 5 (2): 188–230. doi:10.1353/sls.2005.0001. S2CID 143557815.
Collins, Steven (2004). Adverbial Morphemes in Tactile American Sign Language. Union Institute & University.
Costello, Elaine (2008). American Sign Language Dictionary. Random House. ISBN 978-0375426162. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Hurlbut, Hope (2003), «A Preliminary Survey of the Signed Languages of Malaysia», in Baker, Anne; van den Bogaerde, Beppie; Crasborn, Onno (eds.), Cross-linguistic perspectives in sign language research: selected papers from TISLR (PDF), Hamburg: Signum Verlag, pp. 31–46, archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09, retrieved December 3, 2012
Johnson, Trevor; Schembri, Adam (2007). Australian Sign Language (Auslan): An introduction to sign language linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521540568. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Kegl, Judy (2008). «The Case of Signed Languages in the Context of Pidgin and Creole Studies». In Kouwenberg, Silvia; Singler, John (eds.). The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0521540568. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Klima, Edward S.; Bellugi, Ursula (1979). The signs of language. Boston: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-80796-9.
Lane, Harlan; Pillard, Richard; French, Mary (2000). «Origins of the American Deaf-World». Sign Language Studies. 1 (1): 17–44. doi:10.1353/sls.2000.0003.
Liddell, Scott (2002), «Modality Effects and Conflicting Agendas», in Armstrong, David; Karchmer, Michael; Van Cleve, John (eds.), The Study of Signed Languages, Gallaudet University, pp. xi–xix, ISBN 978-1-56368-123-3, retrieved November 26, 2012
Lucas, Ceil; Bayley, Robert; Valli, Clayton (2003). What’s your sign for pizza?: An introduction to variation in American Sign Language. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. ISBN 978-1563681448.
Mitchell, Ross; Young, Travas; Bachleda, Bellamie; Karchmer, Michael (2006). «How Many People Use ASL in the United States?: Why Estimates Need Updating» (PDF). Sign Language Studies. 6 (3). ISSN 0302-1475. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Nyst, Victoria (2010), «Sign languages in West Africa», in Brentari, Diane (ed.), Sign Languages, Cambridge University Press, pp. 405–432, ISBN 978-0-521-88370-2
Padden, Carol (2010), «Sign Language Geography», in Mathur, Gaurav; Napoli, Donna (eds.), Deaf Around the World (PDF), New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 19–37, ISBN 978-0199732531, archived from the original (PDF) on June 3, 2011, retrieved November 25, 2012
Shaw, Emily; Delaporte, Yves (2015). A historical and etymological dictionary of American Sign Language : the origin and evolution of more than 500 signs. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. ISBN 1-56368-622-8. OCLC 915119757.
Solomon, Andrea (2010). Cultural and Sociolinguistic Features of the Black Deaf Community (Honors Thesis). Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
Supalla, Samuel; Cripps, Jody (2011). «Toward Universal Design in Reading Instruction» (PDF). Bilingual Basics. 12 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved January 5, 2012.
Valli, Clayton; Lucas, Ceil (2000). Linguistics of American Sign Language. Gallaudet University Press. ISBN 978-1-56368-097-7. Retrieved December 2, 2012.
van der Hulst, Harry; Channon, Rachel (2010), «Notation systems», in Brentari, Diane (ed.), Sign Languages, Cambridge University Press, pp. 151–172, ISBN 978-0-521-88370-2

External links[edit]

American Sign Language at Curlie
Accessible American Sign Language vocabulary site
American Sign Language discussion forum
One-stop resource American Sign Language and video dictionary
National Institute of Deafness ASL section
National Association of the Deaf ASL information
American Sign Language
The American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project
Video Dictionary of ASL
American Sign Language Dictionary

Источник

Test Your American Sign Language By Taking A Free ASL Signs Quiz

Answer the questions and find out how well you know your American Sign Language signs

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You can take the quiz as many times as you want – a great way to practice!

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Share your results on social media or by email. Invite your friends and see who scores the best.

Why take our Sign Language Signs Quiz?

Whether you choose to learn sign language for a loved one, your career or for the opportunity to integrate with the Deaf community; knowing ASL will give you an amazing new perspective of the world.

When you’re in the early stages of learning sign language and don’t know sign language signs, the sign language alphabet can help you spell out words and bridge the gap between you and the person you need to communicate with.

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Источник

Today I’m delighted to feature a guest post from Kristine about American Sign Language (ASL).

You’ll learn about:

What ASL is and how it developed
5 common misconceptions people have about ASL
Some similarities between ASL and English
How learning ASL is different from learning English

Here’s Kristine…

What Is American Sign Language (ASL)?

ASL, short for American Sign Language, is the sign language most commonly used in, you guessed it, the United States and Canada.

Approximately 250,000 – 500,000 people of all ages throughout the US and Canada use this language to communicate as their native language. ASL is the third most commonly used language in the United States, after English and Spanish.

Contrary to popular belief, ASL is not representative of English nor is it some sort of imitation of spoken English that you and I use on a day-to-day basis. For many, it will come as a great surprise that ASL has more similarities to spoken Japanese and Navajo than to English.

When we discuss ASL or any other type of sign language, we are referring to what is called a visual-gestural language. The visual component refers to the use of body movements versus sound.

Because “listeners” must use their eyes to “receive” the information, this language was specifically created to be easily recognized by the eyes. The “gestural” component refers to the body movements or “signs” that are performed to convey a message.

A Brief History Of ASL

ASL is a relatively new language, which first appeared in the 1800s with the founding of the first successful American School for the Deaf by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet.

With strong roots in French Sign Language, ASL evolved to incorporate the signs students would use in less formal occasions such as in their home or within the deaf community.

As students graduated from the American School for the Deaf, some went on to open up their own schools, passing along this evolving American Sign Language as the contact language for the deaf in the United States.

Is There A Universal Sign Language?

There is no universal language for the deaf – all over the world, different sign languages have developed that vary from one another.

A spoken English speaker from the USA, for example, can generally understand someone from another English speaking nation such as England or Australia.

But with sign language, someone who signs using American Sign language would not be able to understand someone who signs using British Sign Language (BSL) or even Australian Auslan.

5 Common Misconceptions About ASL

Like any foreign language, ASL falls victim to many misconceptions among those who have not explored the language.

Because of the word ‘American’ in its name, many assume it shares the same qualities as English and is simply a representation of English using hands and gestures.

However, this is not the case. Let’s take a look at 5 of the most common misconceptions about ASL:

Misconception #1: ASL Is “English On The Hands”

As you’ve probably realised by now, ASL actually has little in common with spoken English, nor is it some sort of signed representation of English words.

ASL was formed independently of English and has its own unique sentence structure and symbols for various words and ideas.

The key features of ASL are:

hand shape
palm orientation
hand movement
hand location
gestural features like facial expression and posture

When English is used through fingerspelling, hand motions represent the English alphabet to spell words in English, but this is not actually a part of ASL. Rather, it’s a separate element of signed communication.

Misconception #2: ASL Is Shorthand

Another common misconception about ASL is that it is some form of shorthand, or rapid communication by means of abbreviations and symbols.

This misconception arises due to the fact that ASL does not have a written component.

To call ASL shorthand is sorely incorrect, as ASL is a complex language system with its own set of linguistic components.

Misconception #3: ASL Is Most Like British Sign Language

Although the United States and the United Kingdom share spoken English as their predominant language, American Sign Language and British Sign Language vary greatly.

In fact, American Sign Language has its roots in French Sign Language, while British Sign Language has had a greater influence on the development of Australian Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language.

Misconception #4: ASL Is Finger Spelling

In ASL, fingerspelling is reserved for borrowing words from the English language for proper nouns and technical terms with no ASL equivalent.

For example, fingerspelling can be used for people’s names, places, titles, and brands.

When fingerspelling is used in ASL, it’s done using the American Fingerspelled Alphabet. This alphabet has 22 handshapes, that, when held in certain positions or movements represent the 26 letters of the English alphabet.

Misconception #5: Lip Reading Is An Effective Alternative To Learning Sign Language

It’s estimated that only 30% of English can be read on the lips by the deaf.

Lip reading is also not an effective because it’s a one-way method of communication.

It’s very unlikely that the speaker will be nearly as skilled at lip reading as those who are fluent in ASL, as learning to lip read well can take years upon years of practice.

This means that lip reading is not an effective method for two-way communication.

How Is Learning ASL Similar To Learning English?

Now that we’ve cleared up some of the misconceptions about ASL, let’s look at some of the similarities that ASL and English do share:

Both English And ASL Are Natural Languages

Both ASL and English are defined as “natural languages” meaning they were created and spread through people using them, without conscious planning or premeditation.

Artificial languages, on the other hand, are communication systems which have been consciously created or invented and do not develop and change naturally.

Some artificial systems that were invented for deaf children include:

lip reading
cued speech
signed English
manually coded English.

With any natural language, immersion is the surest way to ensure fluency and American Sign Language is no different.

This means surrounding yourself with the ASL/Deaf community to help expose yourself to the context, culture, behaviours, and grammatical rules of the language.

Both ASL And English Activate The Same Area Of The Brain

When an ASL signer sees and processes an ASL sentence, the same part of the brain – the left hemisphere – is activated as when an English speaker listens to or reads an English sentence.

This is because even though language exists in different forms, all of them are based on symbolic representation. These symbols can visual or aural but they are still processed in the same part of the brain.

Both Require Building Words To Form Sentences

Signed languages have similar grammatical characteristics as spoken languages.

Just as sounds are linked to form syllables and words in a spoken language, signs can be built through various gestures and hand shapes, positions, and movements.

ASL has the same basic set of word types as spoken English does, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs.

How Is Learning ASL Different To Learning English?

In this article, I’ve compared many of the similarities between ASL and English, but how do the two differ for those trying to learn them?

Visual Language vs. Auditory Language

The first and most obvious difference between learning ASL and English is the medium you use for your learning – your eyes or your ears.

This may help to make ASL easier for people who are visual learners.

Similarly, if you are more of an auditory learner, you will probably find learning English or other spoken languages easier to pick up than sign language.

ASL Requires Gestural Movements Never Used In Spoken Language

Learning how to communicate through ASL and other sign languages requires a movement of body parts that most spoken-language speakers may not be used to.

These gestures include hand, arm, eye, and even facial expressions.

Just like the sounds of a new spoken language can take some getting used to for beginners, these gestures can be challenging for new learners of sign language to pick up.

ASL Is More Conceptual Than Spoken Languages

When making a connection between a sign and its intended meaning in ASL, it can be easier to comprehend the words meaning than in a spoken language.

For example, in ASL, the word book is signed with both hands gesturing the opening of a book.

The word “book” in English, however, does not conjure such an image. You either know what it means or you don’t and it’s hard to guess if you’re not sure.

Not all signs look like what they”re representing, but these conceptual connections are definitely more common than in spoken language.

ASL, because it’s visual, is a deeply conceptual language.

Because of this, the object of the sentence is signed first. For example, the English statement “The boy skipped home” would be reordered in ASL, starting with ‘home’ and then introducing the boy skipping.

ASL Has A Different Word Order Than English

As an English-speaker learning ASL, you may find the word order a bit tricky to get used to.

In ASL, how you assemble sentences following a different pattern, based on content.

When using indirect objects in ASL, you place the object right after the subject and then show the action. Lets look at an example:

English: The boy throws a frisbee
ASL: Boy — frisbee — throw

Tenses Are Represented Differently In ASL

In English, verbs are changed to show their tense, using the suffixes -ed, -ing and -s.

In ASL, tenses are shown differently.

Rather than conjugating the verbs, tense is established with a separate sign.

To represent the present tense, no change is made to the signs.

However, to sign past tense, you sign “finish” at chest level either before or after you finish your sentence.

Signing the future tense is quite similar to signing past tense. It’s indicated with a sign either before or at the end of the sentence as well as by adding “will” at the end of the sentence.

One interesting difference in the future tense, however, is that how far away from your body you sign the word “will” indicates how far in the future the sentence is.

As you can see, learning ASL is quite similar to learning any natural language.

Are You Thinking Of Learning ASL?

Every language has its own set of rules and grammar and ASL is no different.

While these rules and grammar are different are quite different from what we’re used to in English, they’re not particularly difficult to learn.

Like any language, getting the hang of ASL simply requires lots of practice and determination. You just need to get started.

If you’re currently thinking about learning a new language, you should consider giving ASL a try. I think you’ll find that it’s not only a fun and interesting language to learn but an incredibly enjoyable one too.

Are you interested in learning ASL or another form of sign language? Why do you want to learn sign language and what signs or topics do you most want to learn about? Let us know in the comments below!

This is a guest post by Kristine Thorndyke. Kristine is an English teacher who believes in improving lives through education. When shes not teaching, you can find her creating helpful resources for standardized testing at Test Prep Nerds.

Источник

Задание №6954.
Чтение. ЕГЭ по английскому

Прочитайте текст и запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа.

Показать текст. ⇓

Sign language like ASL is
1) a visual representation of a language.
2) a natural language in its own right.
3) an artificially developed system of signs.
4) a system of spelling words by hand gestures.

Решение:
Sign language like ASL is a natural language in its own right.
Язык жестов, такой как ASL, сам по себе является естественным языком.

«Sign language is a language that uses hand gestures that are modified by facial expressions.»

Показать ответ

Источник: Английский язык. Подготовка к ЕГЭ в 2021 году. Диагностические работы. Ватсон Е. Р.

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ОГЭ Английский язык задание №9 Демонстрационный вариант 2018 Прочитайте тексты и установите соответствие между текстами А–G и заголовками 1–8. В ответ запишите цифры, в порядке, соответствующем буквам. Используйте каждую цифру только один раз. В задании есть один лишний заголовок.

1. The scientific explanation
5. Places without rainbows
2. The real shape
6. A personal vision
3. A lucky sign
7. A bridge between worlds
4. Some tips
8. Impossible to catch

A. Two people never see the same rainbow. Each person sees a different one. It
happens because the raindrops are constantly moving so the rainbow is always
changing too. Each time you see a rainbow it is unique and it will never be the
same! In addition, everyone sees colours differently according to the light and
how their eyes interpret it.
B. A rainbow is an optical phenomenon that is seen in the atmosphere. It appears
in the sky when the sun’s light is reflected by the raindrops. A rainbow always
appears during or immediately after showers when the sun is shining and the
air contains raindrops. As a result, a spectrum of colours is seen in the sky. It
takes the shape of a multicoloured arc.
C. Many cultures see the rainbow as a road, a connection between earth and
heaven (the place where God lives). Legends say that it goes below the earth at
the horizon and then comes back up again. In this way it makes a permanent
link between what is above and below, between life and death. In some myths
the rainbow is compared to a staircase connecting earth to heaven.
D. We all believe that the rainbow is arch-shaped. The funny thing is that it’s
actually a circle. The reason we don’t see the other half of the rainbow is
because we cannot see below the horizon. However, the higher we are above
the ground, the more of the rainbow’s circle we can see. That is why, from an
airplane in flight, a rainbow will appear as a complete circle with the shadow of
the airplane in the centre.
E. In many cultures there is a belief that seeing a rainbow is good. Legends say
that if you dig at the end of a rainbow, you’ll find a pot of gold. Rainbows are
also seen after a storm, showing that the weather is getting better, and there is
hope after the storm. This is why they are associated with rescue and good
fortune. If people happen to get married on such a day, it is said that they will
enjoy a very happy life together.

F. You can never reach the end of a rainbow. A rainbow is all light and water. It is
always in front of you while your back is to the sun. As you move, the rainbow
that your eye sees moves as well and it will always ‘move away’ at the same
speed that you are moving. No matter how hard you try, a rainbow will always
be as far away from you as it was before you started to move towards it.
G. To see a rainbow you have to remember some points. First, you should be
standing with the sun behind you. Secondly, the rain should be in front of you.
The most impressive rainbows appear when half of the sky is still dark with
clouds and the other half is clear. The best time to see a rainbow is on a warm
day in the early morning after sunrise or late afternoon before sunset. Rainbows
are often seen near waterfalls and fountains.
Запишите в таблицу выбранные цифры под соответствующими буквами.

Текст	A	B	C	D	E	F	G
Заголовок

ОГЭ Английский язык задание №9 Демонстрационный вариант 2017

1. Traditional delivery 2. Loss of popularity 3. Money above privacy
4. The best-known newspapers 5. Focus on different readers 6. The successful competitor
7. Size makes a difference 8. Weekend reading

A. As in many other European countries, Britain’s main newspapers are losing their readers. Fewer and fewer people are buying broadsheets and tabloids at the newsagent’s. In the last quarter of the twentieth century people became richer and now they can choose other forms of leisure activity. Also, there is the Internet which is a convenient and inexpensive alternative source of news.

B. The ‘Sunday papers’ are so called because that is the only day on which they are published. Sunday papers are usually thicker than the dailies and many of them have six or more sections. Some of them are ‘sisters’ of the daily newspapers. It means they are published by the same company but not on week days.

C. Another proof of the importance of ‘the papers’ is the morning ‘paper round’. Most newsagents organise these. It has become common that more than half of the country’s readers get their morning paper brought to their door by a teenager. The boy or girl usually gets up at around 5:30 a.m. every day including Sunday to earn a bit of pocket money.

D. The quality papers or broadsheets are for the better educated readers. They devote much space to politics and other ‘serious’ news. The popular papers, or tabloids, sell to a much larger readership. They contain less text and a lot more pictures. They use bigger headlines and write in a simpler style of English. They concentrate on ‘human interest stories’ which often means scandal.

E. Not so long ago in Britain if you saw someone reading a newspaper you could tell what kind it was without even checking the name. It was because the quality papers were printed on very large pages called ‘broadsheet’. You had to have expert turning skills to be able to read more than one page. The tabloids were printed on much smaller pages which were much easier to turn.

F. The desire to attract more readers has meant that in the twentieth century sometimes even the broadsheets in Britain look rather ‘popular’. They give a lot of coverage to scandal and details of people’s private lives. The reason is simple. What matters most for all newspaper publishers is making a profit. They would do anything to sell more copies.

G. If you go into any newsagent’s shop in Britain you will not find only newspapers. You will also see rows and rows of magazines for almost every imaginable taste. There are specialist magazines for many popular pastimes. There are around 3,000 of them published in the country and they are widely read, especially by women. Magazines usually list all the TV and radio programmes for the coming week and many British readers prefer them to newspapers.

Текст	A	B	C	D	E	F	G
Заголовок

1.Living through ages 2. Influenced by fashion 3. Young and energetic
4. Old and beautiful 5. Still a mystery 6. A lot to see and to do
7. Welcome to students 8. Fine scenery

A. Ireland is situated on the western edge of Europe. It is an island of great beauty with rugged mountains, blue lakes, ancient castles, long sandy beaches and picturesque harbors. The climate is mild and temperate throughout the year. Ireland enjoys one of the cleanest environments in Europe. Its unspoilt countryside provides such leisure ac¬tivities as hiking, cycling, golfing and horse-riding.
B. Over the past two decades, Ireland has become one of the top destinations for En¬glish language learning — more than 100,000 visitors come to Ireland every year to study English. One quarter of Ireland’s population is under 25 years of age and Dublin acts as a magnet for young people looking for quality education. The Irish are relaxed, friendly, spontaneous, hospitable people and have a great love of conversation. So, there is no better way of learning a language than to learn it in the country where it is spoken.
C. Dublin sits in a vast natural harbor. Such a protected harbor appealed to the first settlers 5,000 years ago and traces of their culture have been found around Dublin and its coast. But it was not until the Vikings came sailing down the coast in the middle 9th cen¬tury that Dublin became an important town. Next to arrive were the Anglo-Norman ad¬venturers. This was the beginning of the long process of colonization that dictated Ire¬land’s development over the next seven hundred years.
D. Now Dublin is changing fast and partly it ’s thanks to its youthful population over 50 percent are under the age of twenty-five and that makes the city come alive. To¬day Dublin is a city full of charm with a dynamic cultural life, small enough to be friend¬ly, yet cosmopolitan in outlook. This is the culture where the heritage of ancient days brings past and present together.
E. In general, cultural life of Dublin is very rich and you can enjoy visiting different museums, art galleries and exhibitions. But for those looking for peace and quiet there are two public parks in the centre of the city: St. Stephen’s Green and Merrion Square.
The city centre has several great shopping areas depending on your budget as well as nu¬merous parks and green areas for relaxing in. Dublin is also a sports-m ad city and wheth¬er you are playing or watching, it has everything for the sports enthusiast.
F. Step dances are the creation of Irish dancing m asters of the late 18th century.
Dancing m asters would often travel from town to town, teaching basic dancing steps to those interested and able to pay for them . Their appearance was motivated by a desire to learn the ‘fashionable’ dance styles which were coming from France. The dance m asters often changed these dances to fit the traditional music and, in doing so, laid the basis for much of today’s traditional Irish dance — ceili, step, and set.
G. St Patrick is known as the patron saint of Ireland. True, he was not a born Irish.
But he has become an integral part of the Irish heritage, mostly through his service across Ireland of the 5th century. Patrick was born in the second half of the 4th century AD. There are different views about the exact year and place of his birth . According to one school of opinion, he was born about 390 A.D., while the other school says it is about 373 AD. Again, his birth place is said to be in either Scotland or Roman England. So, though Patricius was his Romanicized name, he became later known as Patrick.
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Текст	A	B	C	D	E	F	G
Заголовок

Источник: ОГЭ 2017 АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Л.М.Гудкова О.В.Терентьева

1.Thanks to new technology 2. A custom for a sweet-tooth 3. The upside down world
4. Nice for people in love 5. Happy next year 6. Not allowed for some time
7. Watch out or give the money 8. Christmas is coming

A. Houses are decorated with colored paper ribbons and chains. Holly with red ber¬ries is put on the walls and looks very colorful. A piece of mistletoe (a plant) is hung from the ceiling. It is said to be lucky to kiss under the mistletoe hanging from the ceil¬ing. As you can understand, a lot of people who may not usually kiss each other take the chance given by a piece of mistletoe!
B. One of the delicacies the British have enjoyed for almost 900 years is the mince pie.
This is a sort of small cake with a delicious mixture of spices and fruit. It was the Cru¬saders who introduced it when they brought back new aromatic spices from the Holy Land. In the 17th century Oliver Cromwell tried to ban the eating of mince pies (as well as singing of carols) — but people continued to eat (and sing) in secret.
C. Christmas Day is a family day when families try to be together. In past years, the Queen has broadcast a radio message from her study at Sandringham House. Since 1959 she has been recording her message every year some weeks before Christmas, so it could be broadcast on Christmas Day by radio in all parts of the British Commonwealth.
D. In the USA many towns have a public tree place in some square or park or outside the town hall. This custom began first in America when an illuminated tree was set up in 1909 in Pasadena, California. Now we can observe the ceremony of putting up the Christmas tree in Rockefeller Center in the heart of New York City, as well as in the main square of every town in the country. The nation’s main Christmas tree is set up in Washington, D.C. on the parade ground near the White House. A few days before Christ¬mas the President of the United States presses a button to light the tree. This is the sig¬nal for lighting trees across the land.
E. The custom of breaking a wishbone (of a chicken or turkey) comes from the Ro¬mans who used them for fortune telling. They examined the bones of sacrificed birds, which they thought were messengers from their gods. Looking for signs of future events, they broke the wishbone and the person with the longest piece could make a wish which may bring him luck or good fortune.
F. Christmas in Australia is not like anywhere else since December is one of the hot¬test months of the year. But the Australians have a great time anyway. Those who live near the coast go to the beach on Christmas day. They have a swim, play cricket or vol¬leyball, surf or just sit around with family and friends enjoying Christmas dinner. Santa Claus arrives on a surfboard — quite a change from sliding down a chimney!
G. Christmas caroling is particularly popular in Wales where it is often accompanied by a harp. In some rural areas a villager is chosen to be the Mari Lawyed. This person travels around the town dressed in white and carrying a horse’s skull on a long pole. Anyone given the ‘bite’ by the horse’s jaws must pay a fine.

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Текст	A	B	C	D	E	F	G
Заголовок

Источник: ОГЭ 2017 АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Л.М.Гудкова О.В.Терентьева

1.A two-language melting pot 2. Born of hardships 3. Enough land for both
4. Failures and successes 5. Native tribes 6. Difficult life
7. Back to the roots 8. The birth of the new nation

A. Long before Europeans first came to America, many groups of Indians lived there.
They hunted forest animals for food and clothing. They gathered berries and nuts in the forests. Many groups fished in the rivers and streams that flowed through the forests.
Most anthropologists agree that the North American Indians migrated over the Bering Sea from Siberia, 10,000 to 30,000 years ago.
B. Later, in 1534 the French king sent Jacques C artier to find a water route to the Far East. C artier made several voyages to the new World, and he tried to establish a colony on the banks of the St. Lawrence River (where Montreal is located today) but he failed.
In 1608, Samuel de Champlain built the first perm anent French settlement in Canada.
He named it Quebec.
C. Both nations began to expand in the New World. English colonists began to settle along the Atlantic Coast. The French began to explore and build forts in the region south of the Great Lakes in the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.
D. So Great Britain and France were fighting for control of Canada until 1763. As a result, France signed a treaty giving up all its claims to land on the continent of North America. The French who were living in Canada did not return to France. They continued to follow the customs and religion of their native land. They became ‘French Canadians’.КНТ 3
19
E. Since that time, millions of immigrants from the United States, Scotland, Ireland, England, Germany, Russia, Poland, Scandinavia, and other countries of the world have moved to Canada. Today about one third of the Canadians speak French and about two thirds speak English. English and French are both official languages of Canada.
F. Since the 1950s, there has been a remarkable rebirth of Indian culture. Native lan¬guage, culture and history programmes have been instituted in schools. Cultural centres are flourishing, and traditional practices and beliefs are increasingly being used to com¬bat alcoholism and drug problems. Indian elders are once again playing a vital role and linking generations.
G. Canadian sport is indebted to Indian culture for the toboggan, snowshoe, lacrosse stick and canoe. Many Indian games had utilitarian purposes related to survival, e.g. wrestling, archery, spear throw ing, foot and canoe racing. Some of them initially were meant to prepare youngsters for cooperative existence in a cruel environment

Текст	A	B	C	D	E	F	G
Заголовок

Источник: ОГЭ 2017 АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Л.М.Гудкова О.В.Терентьева

1. The history of a popular drink 2. Healthy drink 3. They want it quick and easy
4. Not a drink 5. Some changes in British diet 6. Some changes in British tastes
7. Making tea process 8. Helpful hint

A. British attitude to what they eat daily has changed a lot over the past twenty years. In the 1990s each person ate about 352 gram s of ‘red ’ meat each week, but now it’s less than 250 gram s. People prefer chicken and fresh fish. And more people are interest¬ed in healthy eating these days. In 1988 the national average was 905 gram s of fruit and fruit juices each week, but now i t ’s nearly 2,000 gram s.
B. Twenty years ago, British people usually ate at home. They only went out for a meal at special times, like for somebody’s birthday. Today when both parents are work¬ing, they cannot cook large meals in the evenings. ‘Ready-made’ meals from supermar¬kets and Marks and Spencer and ‘take-aw ay’ meals from fast food restaurants are very popular. If you are feeling tired or lazy, you can even phone a local restaurant. They will bring the food to your house.
C. In the past, traditional steakhouses were very popular places, but now more and more people prefer foreign food. Every British town has Indian and Chinese restaurants, and large towns have restaurants from many other countries too.
D. The British population drinks a lot of tea. Tea — mostly green tea from China — came to Britain in the late 1500s. But it was only for the very rich. It became cheap¬er about three hundred years later, when it was planted in India and later in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). People from all classes started drinking it. But some people thought that too much tea was bad for their health. So they started putting milk in it to make it healthier!
E. Afternoon tea is a small meal. Now most ordinary British families do not have time for afternoon tea at home, but in the past it was a tradition. It became popular when rich ladies invited their friends to their houses for an afternoon cup of tea. They started of¬fering their visitors sandwiches and cakes too. Soon everybody was enjoying this excit¬ing new meal.
F. If someone in England asks you ‘Would you like a cup?’ they are asking if you would like a cup of tea. If someone says, ‘Let me be m other’ or ‘Shall I be m other?’ they are offering to pour out the tea from the teapot.
G. Most people today use teabags to make tea, but some serious drinkers make tea in the traditional way. First the water is boiled. Then some of the boiled water is used to warm the teapot. Then the tealeaves are put in the teapot. Then the boiling water is add¬ed. Then the pot is left for five minutes under a ‘teacosy’. Finally, the tea is served in delicate cups with saucers.

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Источник: ОГЭ 2017 АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Л.М.Гудкова О.В.Терентьева

1.Absolute honesty 2.The cost of education 3. Just choosing 4. Inform al teaching
5. Another application 6. Optional teaching 7. Needed move 8. Uncertain parents

A. At the beginning of your last year at school you receive an application form . On this form you choose up to five universities that you would like to go to. The form is sent to those universities with information from your school about you and your academic results. If the universities are interested in your application, they will ask you to attend an interview and will offer you a place. Any offer, however, is only conditional at this stage.
B. А-level examinations are the exams taken at the end of your time at school. So, when a university makes an offer, it will tell you the minimum grades that you must get on your а-level exam. If you don’t get those grades, then you will not be accepted and you will have to apply again to another university.
C. Like all British universities, Oxford is a state university not a private one.
Students are selected on the basis of their results in the national examination or the special Oxford entrance examination. There are many applicants and nobody can get a place by paying. Successful candidates are admitted to a special college of the university: that will be their home for the next three years and for a longer period if they would like to go on studying for a postgraduate degree.
D. An undergraduate will spend an hour a week with his or her ‘tutor’; perhaps in the company of one other student. Each of them will have written an essay for the tutor, which serves as the basis for discussion, arguments, the exposition of ideas and academic methods. At the end of the hour the students go away with a new essay and a list of books that might be helpful in preparing for the essay.
E. Lectures and seminars are other kinds of teaching; popular lecturers can attract audience from several faculties, while others may find themselves speaking to two or three loyal students or maybe to no-one at all. In practice, most students at Oxford are enthusiastic about academic life and many of them work for days on each essay, sometimes sitting up through the night with a wet towel round their heads.
F. Most 18 and 19 year-olds in Britain are rather independent people, and when the time comes to pick a college, choose one as far away from home as possible. So, many students in northern and Scottish universities come from England and vice versa. It’s very unusual for students to live at home. Although parents may be a little sad to see this happen, they usually have to approve of this step and see it as a necessary part of becoming an adult.
G. Students all over the world have to work for their education. A college education in the USA is expensive. The costs are so high that most families begin to save for their children’s education when their children are the babies. Even so, many young people cannot afford to pay the expenses of full-time college work. They do not have enough money to pay for school costs. Tuition for attending the university, books for classes, and dormitory costs are high. There are other expenses such as chemistry and biology laboratories fees and special student activity fees.

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Источник: ОГЭ 2017 АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Л.М.Гудкова О.В.Терентьева

Вербицкая М. В. Forward. Английский язык для 10 класса. ЕГЭ

ЕГЭ Раздел 1. Аудирование

1. Вы услышите 6 высказываний. Установите соответствие между высказываниями каждого говорящего A-F и утверждениями, данными в списке 1-7. Используйте каждое утверждение, обозначенное соответствующей цифрой, только один раз. В задании есть одно лишнее утверждение. Вы услышите запись дважды. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу.

C-1. I like having the best of both worlds. — Мне нравится иметь лучшее из обоих миров.
E-2. Life in the countryside is good for my health. — Жизнь в сельской местности хороша для моего здоровья.
B-3. I love the countryside, because life there is very peaceful. — Я люблю деревню, потому что жизнь там очень спокойная.
F-4. The beauty of nature makes living in the country enjoyable. — Красота природы делает жизнь в сельской местности приятной.
Extra-5. I love the countryside, because life there is good for my children. — Я люблю деревню, потому что жизнь там хороша для моих детей.
A-6. I enjoyed moving to a town where life is more comfortable. – Мне нравится ездить в город, где жизнь более комфортная.
D-7. I dislike living in the country, because I need human company. — Я не люблю жить в деревне, потому что мне нужна человеческая компания.

2. Вы услышите диалог. Определите, какие из приведённых утверждений А-G соответствуют содержанию текста (1 — True), какие не соответствуют (2 — False) и о чём в тексте не сказано, то есть на основании текста нельзя дать ни положительный, ни отрицательный ответ (3 — Not stated). Занесите номер выбранного Вами варианта ответа в таблицу. Вы услышите запись дважды.

3-A John usually spends Christmas at his parents’ house. — Джон обычно проводит Рождество в доме своих родителей.
1-B Angela is rather pessimistic about her chances to get the job. — Анжела довольно пессимистична по поводу ее шансов получить работу.
2-C John considers Angela a workaholic. — Джон считает Анжелу трудоголиком.
2-D John is enthusiastic about Angela moving to Russia. — Джон с энтузиазмом относится к переезду Анжелы в Россию.
3-E Angela worked in an international company in Canada. — Анжела работала в международной компании в Канаде.
1-F John is more optimistic than Angela about her chances to get the job. — Джон более оптимистичен, чем Анжела о ее шансах получить работу.
3-G John is going to leave at 2 PM. — Джон собирается ехать в 2 часа дня.

Вы услышите интервью. В заданиях 3-9 запишите в поле ответа цифру 7, 2 или 3, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа. Вы услышите запись дважды.

3. Tony Stevens 2) watches his films once. — Тони Стивенс смотрел свои фильмы один раз.

4. What is the most important thing about writing for Tony Stevens? – Какая наиболее важная вещь о писательстве для Тони Стивенса?
1) Writing is NOT a team work like acting. – Писательство НЕ является командной работой как игра актеров (актерство).

5. Tony Stevens says that if, as a child, you are fascinated by a literary character, 2) you want to become that character. — Тони Стивенс говорит, что если, будучи ребенком, вы очарованы литературным персонажем, то вы хотите стать этим персонажем.

6. Tony Stevens wished he had had on the school curriculum 1) “Pickwick Papers” by Charles Dickens. — Тони Стивенсу хотелось, чтобы в его школьной программе было произведение «Записки Пиквикского клуба» Чарльза Диккенса.

7. What advice does he give to beginning writers? — Какой совет он дает начинающим писателям?
3) Go by your experience and write clearly. – Следовать своему опыту и писать ясно.

8. What is his present attitude to critical reviews? — Каково его настоящее отношение к критическим отзывам?
3) He pays no attention to them. — Он не обращает на них никакого внимания.

9. What made his career as an actor successful? — Что сделало его карьеру как актера успешной?
2) Determination and decisiveness. – Целеустремленность и решительность.

ЕГЭ Раздел 2. Чтение

10. Установите соответствие между текстами А-G и заголовками 1-8. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу. Используйте каждую цифру только один раз. В задании один заголовок лишний.

F-1. Beware of rabbits — Остерегайтесь кроликов
A-2. Exotic pets — Экзотические домашние животные
B-3. Saving animals – Спасение животных
G-4. Teaching and entertaining – Обучение и развлечение
Extra-5. Protecting pets — Защита домашних животных
D-6. Tender pets — Нежные домашние животные
C-7. What’s in a name? — Что в имени?
E-8. Contribution to science — Вклад в науку

A. Little is known for certain about how guinea pigs were first introduced to Europe and North America as a domestic pet, but they most probably came during the 16th century. Holland, Portugal and Spain had colonies in South America, and the explorers brought to Europe gold and precious gems, along with other unusual and exciting finds. Colourful parrots became very popular status symbols in the homes of the wealthy, and with them came the guinea pig and other animals previously unknown in Europe.

Мало что наверняка известно о том, как морские свинки впервые были ввезены в Европу и Северную Америку в качестве домашнего питомца, но они, скорее всего, появились в 16-м веке. Голландия, Португалия и Испания были колониями в Южной Америке, и исследователи привезли в Европу золото и драгоценные камни, наряду с другими необычными и захватывающими находками. Красочные попугаи стали очень популярными символами статуса в домах богатых, а вместе с ними привезли морскую свинку и других животных, ранее неизвестных в Европе.

B. Many species of wild animals are in danger of complete extinction. This is usually due to loss of habitat as a result of human expansion, or it could be due to excessive hunting. A good, modern zoo has a valuable role to play in assisting with the protection of endangered species. This is both through education of the general public in the importance of conservation in general, and through breeding programmes to increase the population of endangered species in captivity and then reintroduce them into the wild.

Многие виды диких животных находятся под угрозой полного исчезновения. Это, как правило, из-за потери среды обитания в результате человеческой экспансии, или это может быть из-за чрезмерной охоты. Хороший, современный зоопарк играет ценную роль в оказании помощи в защите исчезающих видов. Это происходит как за счет образования широкой общественности в важности сохранения в целом, а также посредством программ разведения для увеличения популяции исчезающих видов в неволе, а затем вновь выпускать их в дикую природу.

C. The guinea pig is today one of the world’s most popular pets, ranking only a little way behind the rabbit. Though called guinea pigs, these animals are not pigs, nor do they come from Guinea. Why Guinea, then? Some say they could have originally changed hands at the cost of a guinea (twenty-one shillings — very expensive!). As for the “pig”, an explanation is much easier to guess — they run and squeal much as little piglets do!

Морская свинка сегодня является одним из самых популярных домашних животных в мире, лишь немного отстает от кролика. Хотя они и называются морскими свинками, эти животные не являются свиньями, и они не из Гвинеи. Почему тогда Гвинея? Некоторые говорят, что они первоначально были названы по стоимости «guinea» (двадцать один шиллинг — очень дорого). Что касается «свинка», объяснение гораздо проще угадать — они бегают и визжат как маленькие поросята!

D. Rabbits are among the most popular pets to keep due to their affectionate nature and love of cuddles. To show they are happy, they often grind their teeth softly when being petted, similar to cats purring. In general, rabbits are timid, non-aggressive and sociable with each other. With gentle handling they are generally quite tame. They are playful and entertaining to watch, but they need a great deal of interaction with their owners. Their cage should be relatively big, but they need some playtime outside it as well.

Кролики являются одними из самых популярных домашних животных, которых держат из-за их ласковой природы и любви объятий. Чтобы показать, что они счастливы, они часто скрипят зубами, когда их мягко поглаживаешь, похожие на кошачье мурлыканье. В общем, кролики пугливые, неагрессивные и общительные друг с другом. При бережном обращении они, как правило, совсем ручные. Они игривы и за ними интересно наблюдать, но они нуждаются во взаимодействии с их владельцами. Их клетка должна быть относительно большой, но им также нужно играть и за ее пределами.

E. For a long time guinea pigs were used as experimental animals. In 1890, the antitoxin for diphtheria was discovered using guinea pigs in the research, and as a result the lives of millions of children have been saved. In 1907 vitamin С was discovered due to guinea pigs. Like humans they cannot produce the vitamin and need it supplied in their diet. The guinea pig’s wide variety of hair types and colours has also made them a prime choice for studies of genetics and heredity. Later they were replaced by rats and mice.

Долгое время морских свинок использовали в качестве экспериментальных животных. В 1890 году антитоксин дифтерии был обнаружен с использованием морских свинок в исследованиях, и в результате жизни миллионов детей были спасены. В 1907 Витамин С был обнаружен из-за морских свинок. Как и люди, они не могут производить витамин и нужно, чтобы он присутствовал в их рационе. Широкое разнообразие морских свинок по типу шерсти и цвету также сделало их основным выбором для изучения генетики и наследственности. Позже они были заменены на крыс и мышей.

F. Security at Denver International Airport tries to protect cars from vandalism and theft, but there’s a new threat at its expansive parking lot. Ravenous rabbits. The animals are causing hundreds and sometimes thousands of dollars in damage to cars by devouring the wires under the hood. At least 100 rabbits are removed every month, but the problem persists. The airport is surrounded by prairie, and the rabbits are seeking warmth and food in the parked vehicles.

Служба безопасности в международном аэропорту Денвера пытается защитить автомобили от вандализма и кражи, но есть новая угроза на открытой стоянке. Прожорливые кролики. Животные наносят ущерб в сотни, а иногда и тысячи долларов, в виде повреждения автомобилей, пожирая провода под капотом. По крайней мере, 100 кроликов, удаляются каждый месяц, но проблема не решена. Аэропорт окружен прерией, и кролики ищут тепло и еду в припаркованных транспортных средствах.

G. Our mission at Wild Adventures Zoo is to bring family entertainment back to Las Vegas, in an educational manner. Teaching respect for animals through hands-on applications, workshops and conservation efforts, as well as helping injured and abandoned wildlife and exotic pets, is the reason Wild Adventures Zoo was created. Our focus is on educating the public through fun and exciting activities that allow them to interact with the animals.

Наша миссия в зоопарке Уайлд Эдвенчерс принести развлечение для всей семьи обратно в Лас-Вегас, в образовательной манере. Обучение уважению к животным через практическое применение, мастерские и семинары по сохранению, а также помощь раненым и брошенным диким и экзотическим животным, это и есть причины создания зоопарка Уайлд Эдвенчерс. Наше внимание сосредоточено на просвещение общественности с помощью увлекательных и интересных мероприятий, которые позволяют им взаимодействовать с животными.

11. Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски А-F частями предложений, обозначенными цифрами 1-7. Одна из частей в списке 1-7 лишняя. Занесите цифры, обозначающие соответствующие части предложений, в таблицу.

Father’s Day
Father’s Day has been celebrated for over 100 years. It is also an event celebrated in many countries around the world, A 3. although at different times of the year. In North America and the United Kingdom, Father’s Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in June. Here are some tips to help you В 7. celebrate Father’s Day in a special way. Use this opportunity to get everyone in the family together for a day of fun. You don’t have to stay at home; you could go to the beach, a local park, one of dad’s favourite places!
Having a picnic during the summer months can be entertaining and a blast for the entire family. It’s a great boredom buster, but it also helps the family to get together and С 2. eat some delicious food and play fun games. It doesn’t take more than a picnic basket and a few food items. Among the healthier items good for a picnic there are apples, a watermelon, celery, and raisins, to name a few. Ask other members of the family to D5. help you choose some of their favourite food items that they’d like to have. You need to realize that it acts as glue for family bonds.
When it comes to making gifts for Father’s Day, perhaps steer clear of the E 6. traditional store-bought gifts of tie and socks. He has probably still got last year’s socks stuffed at the back of a drawer. Expensive gifts are not necessary, but the time and F 1. effort you put in to create a personalized present will be deeply appreciated.

Extra — 4. give advice on the best spot for the picnic – дать совет о лучшем месте для пикника

День отца
День отца отмечается уже более 100 лет. Кроме того, это событие отмечается во многих странах по всему миру, хотя в разное время года. В Северной Америке и Соединенном Королевстве, День отца празднуется в третье воскресенье июня. Вот несколько советов, которые помогут вам отметить День отца особым образом. Используйте эту возможность, чтобы собраться вместе всей семьей и повеселиться. Вы не должны оставаться дома; вы могли бы пойти на пляж, местный парк, в одно из самых любимых мест папы!
Устроить пикник в летние месяцы может быть интересным и является глотком свежего воздуха для всей семьи. Это отличный способ борьбы со скукой, но также помогает семье собраться вместе и поесть вкусной еды и поиграть в веселые игры. Не потребуется ничего больше, чем корзина для пикника и несколько продуктов питания. Среди здоровых продуктов хороших для пикника есть яблоки, арбуз, сельдерей, и изюм, вот всего несколько. Попросите у других членов семьи помочь вам выбрать некоторые из их любимых продуктов питания, которые они хотели бы иметь. Вы должны понимать, что оно действует как клей для семейных уз.
Когда дело доходит до дарения подарков на День отца, возможно, лучше держаться подальше от традиционных купленных в магазине подарков, таких как галстук и носки. У него, вероятно, все еще есть носки, подаренные в прошлом году в задней части ящика. Дорогие подарки не нужны, но время и усилия, которые вы приложили для создания персонального подарка, будут высоко оценены.

Прочитайте текст и выполните задания 12-18. В каждом задании запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа.

Have you ever thought about cities of the future? Clean streets, flying cars and robots doing all the work? Almost half of the world’s population currently lives in cities, and by 2050 that is predicted to increase to 75%, but what kind of city will they be living in? Today, most city dwellers are dissatisfied because they have to live in overcrowded and polluted surroundings. Traffic jams are getting worse, queues longer, power cuts more common, bad air quality more threatening to human health.
There are various ideas about how a future city should look. Some of these revolve around the idea that better means greener. Experts predict carbon-neutral cities full of electric vehicles and bike-sharing schemes, with air quality so much improved that office workers can actually open their windows for the first time. Visions of a green city often include skyscrapers where living and office space comprises high-rise green-houses and vegetables growing on the roofs. Behind such greenification of cities lies a very pressing need.
Technology companies such as IBM believe that the best cities will become networks. In Rio de Janeiro, for example, IBM has already built an operations centre, which it describes as the “nerve centre” of the city. (отрывок из текста)

Вы когда-нибудь думали о городах будущего? Чистые улицы, летающие автомобили и роботы делают всю работу? Почти половина населения земного шара в настоящее время живет в городах, и по прогнозам к 2050 году увеличится до 75%, но, в каком городе они будут жить? В настоящее время большинство городских жителей недовольны, потому что они должны жить в перенаселенной и загрязненной среде. Пробки на дорогах становятся все хуже, очереди больше, отключения электроэнергии чаще, плохое качество воздуха представляет более серьезную угрозу для здоровья человека.
Есть различные идеи о том, как будущий город должен выглядеть. Некоторые из них вращаются вокруг идеи о том, что лучшее означает зеленее. Эксперты прогнозируют углерод-нейтральные города, полные электрических транспортных средств и схем движения велосипедистов, с качеством воздуха настолько улучшенным, что офисные работники могут фактически открыть свои окна в первый раз. Видения зеленого города часто включают в себя небоскребы, где жилые и офисные помещения включает в себя многоэтажные парники и теплицы, расположенные на крышах. За таким озеленением городов лежит очень острая необходимость.
Технологические компании, такие как IBM считают, что лучшие города станут электронными сообществами. В Рио-де-Жанейро, например, IBM уже построила центр управления, который она описывает как «нервный центр» города. Построенный изначально, чтобы помочь справиться с наводнениями, которые регулярно ставят под угрозу город, теперь он координирует 30 правительственных учреждений. Каждый человек с мобильным телефоном соединен с операционным центром. Оперативный центр отправляет сообщения на мобильные телефоны граждан и предоставляет информацию о потенциальных авариях, пробках и других обновлениях города.
Тот факт, что крупные корпорации стали настолько активно участвовать в проектировании городской инфраструктуры натолкнул критиков на вопрос, как быстро такой город может, как компьютерные системы, на которые они полагаются, стать устаревшими. Компьютеры и другие гаджеты обновляются все время, новые модели появляются два раза в год. Параллель также можно провести с офисными зданиями шестидесятых годов, которые могут быть описаны как места с низкими потолками стоящие грустные и пустые, так как передовые технологии посчитали их бесполезными.
Большинство проектов IBM обязуется привлекать сбор данных. Компания работает в тесном контакте с общественными группами, а также городскими советами. В штате Айова корпорация завершила проект, где домашним хозяйствам была предоставлена информация об их потреблении воды. Большинство быстро отреагировали и сэкономили воду при столкновении с данными. Интересно, что те, кто получил информацию о потреблении воды своих соседей, в два раза чаще вносили изменения.
Города имеют возможность предоставления чего-то для всех, только потому, и только тогда, когда они созданы всеми. Тем, кто строит города будущего, следует обратить внимание на эти советы.

12. Which of these problems of modern cities are NOT mentioned in paragraph 1? — Какие из этих проблем современных городов не упоминаются в пункте 1?
3) Water pollution — Загрязнение воды

13. The word “greenification” in paragraph 2 means… — Слово «озеленение» в пункте 2 означает
3) gardens on top of buildings — сады на крышах зданий

14. The pronoun “it” in sentence 3 of paragraph 3 refers to… — Местоимение «она» в предложении 3 пункта 3 относится к
1) the IBM company. — компания IBM.

15. What is the purpose of Rio de Janeiro’s operations centre? — Какова цель оперативного центра Рио-де-Жанейро?
1) To inform citizens on traffic density and emergency situations. — информировать граждан о плотности дорожного движения и чрезвычайных ситуациях.

16. Why does the author draw a parallel between the offices of the 60s and the cities of tomorrow? — Почему автор проводит параллель между офисами 60-х и городами завтрашнего дня?
2) To demonstrate the speed of progress. — Для того, чтобы продемонстрировать скорость прогресса.

17. How can access to information influence the behaviour of citizens? — Каким образом может доступ к информации влиять на поведение граждан?
3) They change their habits. — Они меняют свои привычки.

18. Choose the best title for the text. — Выберите лучший заголовок для текста.
2) A City of the Future — Город будущего

ЕГЭ Раздел 3. Грамматика и лексика

Прочитайте приведённые ниже тексты. Преобразуйте, если необходимо, слова, напечатанные заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номерами 19-25, так, чтобы они грамматически соответствовали содер¬жанию текстов. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый про¬пуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы 19-25.

Around the world: the Seychelles
Welcome to the Seychelles! This is an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean. It’s not difficult to find a good tourist spot in the Seychelles. It’s difficult to say which of them is the 19) best.
As the Seychelles islands have a year-long warm, tropical climate, it’s always a good time to visit, although different times of year may be better suited to your particular interests. People interested in 20) diving can make a visit to Denis Island.
Families with 21) children should visit St Anne National Marine Park and the famous beaches.

По всему миру: Сейшельские острова
Добро пожаловать на Сейшелы! Это архипелаг из 115 островов в Индийском океане. Не трудно найти хорошее туристическое место в Сейшельских островах. Трудно сказать, какое из них является лучшим.
Поскольку Сейшельские острова имеют круглый год теплый, тропический климат, то это всегда хорошее время для посещения, хотя разные времена года могут лучше всего подходить для ваших конкретных интересов. Люди, заинтересованные дайвингом могут посетить Денис Айлэнд.
Семьи с детьми должны посетить Национальный морской парк Санкт-Энн и знаменитые пляжи.

Happy New Year
It was an exam before Christmas. One of the students 22) didn’t know how to answer the question.
He was trying hard, but couldn’t remember a single word from the textbook. So he 23) wrote, “God knows! I don’t. Merry Christmas!”
Some time 24) later, just before the New Year, the examination papers came back.
The student saw that the professor 25) had written on his paper, “God gets 100, you get 0. Happy New Year!”

С новым годом
Это был экзамен перед Рождеством. Один из студентов не знал, как ответить на вопрос.
Он изо всех сил старался, но не мог вспомнить ни одного слова из учебника. Таким образом, он написал: «Бог знает! Я нет. Счастливого Рождества!»
Через некоторое время, незадолго до Нового года, пришли экзаменационные работы.
Студент увидел, что профессор написал на его работе, «Бог получает 100, вы получаете 0. С Новым годом!»

Прочитайте приведённый ниже текст. Образуйте от слов, напечатанных заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номерами 26-31, однокоренные слова так, чтобы они грамматически и лексически соответствовали содержанию текста. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый пропуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы 26-31.

The history of radio
Radio started with the discovery of “radio waves”. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that can transmit music, speech, pictures and other data 26) invisibly through the air.
Many devices work by using electromagnetic waves, including radio, microwaves, cordless phones, remote controlled toys, television broadcasts, and more.
During the 1860s, Scottish physicist, J.C. Maxwell predicted the 27) existence of radio waves.
In 1886, German 28) scientist, H.R. Hertz demonstrated that rapid variations of electric current could be projected into space in the form of radio waves.
G. Marconi, an Italian 29) inventor, sent and received his first radio signal in Italy in 1895.
By 1899 he flashed the first 30) wireless signal across the English Channel and two years later received the letter “S”, telegraphed from England to Newfoundland.
This was the first 31) successful transatlantic radiotelegraph message.

История радио
Радио началось с открытия «радиоволн». Радиоволны представляют собой электромагнитные волны, которые могут передавать музыку, речь, изображения и другие данные незримо через воздух.
Многие устройства работают с помощью электромагнитных волн, в том числе радио, микроволновые печи, беспроводные телефоны, игрушки с дистанционным управлением, телевизионные передачи и многое другое.
В течение 1860-х годов, шотландский физик, Дж. К. Максвелл предсказал существование радиоволн.
В 1886 году, немецкий ученый, Г. Р. Герц показал, что быстрые изменения электрического тока могут быть спроецированы в космическое пространство в виде радиоволн.
Г. Маркони, итальянский изобретатель, послал и получил свой первый радиосигнал в Италии в 1895 году.
К 1899 году он отправил первый беспроводной сигнал через Ла-Манш и два года спустя получил букву «S», телеграфированную из Англии в Ньюфаундленд.
Это было первое успешное трансатлантическое радиотелеграфное сообщение.

Прочитайте текст с пропусками, обозначенными номерами 32-38. Эти номера соответствуют заданиям 32-38, в которых представлены возможные варианты ответов. Обведите номер выбранного Вами варианта ответа.

Tests and test-takers
You don’t have to be a psychologist to guess how students are feeling during a test or an exam. Just by observing their body language you can tell whether they will pass or 32) fail.
Just before the test starts, they will often 33) tell silly things and try nervously to hide their nervousness. A little tension or stress before and during a test is normal. When the examinees get their papers, some of them will 34) smile to themselves — a sure sign they know the answers. 35) However, if they feel the exam is hard, you may hear how disappointed they are or see how annoyed they are when they frown. Some will try to glance quickly at their neighbours’ tests, and some will yawn to pretend that they are bored or tired, while, in fact, they are just waiting for the teacher to turn 36) away so that one of their mates can quietly 37) whisper the answers to them. When they finish, some will immediately dash out as if they were desperate to check their answers in their course book, while others will 38) stroll out slowly, relaxed and sure they have passed.

Тесты и тестируемые
Вам не нужно быть психологом, чтобы догадаться, как студенты чувствуют себя во время теста или экзамена. Просто наблюдая за языком их тела, вы можете сказать, сдадут они, или по терпят неудачу.
Как раз перед началом теста, они часто говорят глупые вещи и пытаются нервно скрыть свою нервозность. Небольшое напряжение или стресс до и во время теста нормально. Когда испытуемые получают свои задания, некоторые из них будут улыбаться себе — верный признак того, что они знают ответы. Тем не менее, если они чувствуют, что экзамен трудный, вы можете услышать, как они разочарованы или увидеть, как они раздражены, когда они хмурятся. Некоторые из них будут пытаться заглянуть быстро в тест своих соседей, а некоторые будут зевать, делая вид, что им скучно или они устали, в то время как, на самом деле, они просто ждут, когда учитель отвернется, чтобы один из их товарищей смог спокойно прошептать им ответы. Когда они заканчивают, некоторые из них немедленно выскакивают, словно они спешат проверить свои ответы в учебнике, в то время как другие выходят неторопливо, спокойные и уверенные, что они сдали.

ЕГЭ Раздел 4. Письмо

Для ответов на задания 39 и 40 используйте бланк ответов № 2. Черновые пометки могут делаться прямо на листе с заданиями, или можно использовать отдельный черновик. При выполнении заданий 39 и 40 особое внимание обратите на то, что Ваши ответы будут оцениваться только по записям, сделанным в бланке ответов № 2. Никакие записи черновика не будут учитываться экспертом. Обратите внимание также на необходимость соблюдения указанного объёма текста. Тексты недостаточного объёма, а также часть текста, превышающая требуемый объём, не оцениваются. Запишите сначала номер задания (39, 40), а затем ответ на него. Если одной стороны бланка недостаточно, Вы можете использовать другую его сторону.

39. You have received a letter from your English-speaking pen-friend Tom who writes — Вы получили письмо от англоговорящего друга по переписке Тома, который пишет:

…This summer we are again going to Brighton. I wish I could go abroad to France or Spain — I have never been abroad. How do you usually spend your summer holidays? If you won a trip abroad, what country would you like to visit and what would you like to see there? How would you like to get there?
By the way, my sister is getting married in the autumn…
Write a letter to Tom.
In your letter
— answer his questions
— ask 3 questions about his sister
Write 100-140 words.
Remember the rules of letter writing.

Этим летом мы снова собираемся в Брайтон. Я хотел бы поехать за границу во Францию или Испанию — я никогда не был за границей. Как ты обычно проводишь свой летний отпуск? Если бы ты выиграл поездку за границу, какую страну ты хотел бы посетить и что ты хотел бы увидеть там? Как бы ты хотел туда попасть?
Кстати, моя сестра выходит замуж осенью …
Напишите письмо Тому.
В своем письме
— ответьте на его вопросы
— задайте 3 вопроса о его сестре
Напишите 100-140 слов.
Помните правила письма.

40. Comment on the following statement. – Прокомментируйте следующее утверждение.

There are no bad students — there are bad teachers. — Нет плохих учеников — есть плохие учителя.

What is your opinion? Do you agree with this statement? — Каково ваше мнение? Согласны ли вы с этим утверждением?
Write 200-250 words. — Напишите 200-250 слов.

Use the following plan — Используйте следующий план:
— make an introduction (state the problem) — введение (постановка задачи)
— express your personal opinion and give 2-3 reasons for your opinion — выскажите свое личное мнение и дайте 2-3 причины за ваше мнение
— express an opposing opinion and give 1-2 reasons for this opposing opinion – выразите противоположное мнение и дайте 1-2 причины для этого мнения
— explain why you don’t agree with the opposing opinion — Объясните, почему вы не согласны с противоположным мнением
— make a conclusion restating your position – сделайте вывод подтверждающий вашу позицию

Раздел 1. АУДИРОВАНИЕ

Вы услышите 6 высказываний. Установите соответствие между высказываниями каждого говорящего A—F и утверждениями, данными в списке 1—7. Используйте каждое утверждение, обозначенное соответствующей цифрой, только один раз. В задании есть одно лишнее утверждение. Вы услышите запись дважды. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу.

Вы услышите диалог. Определите, какие из приведённых утверждений А—G соответствуют содержанию текста (1 — True), какие не соответствуют (2 — False) и о чём в тексте не сказано, то есть на основании текста нельзя дать ни положительного, ни отрицательного ответа (3 — Not stated). Занесите номер выбранного вами варианта ответа в таблицу. Вы услышите запись дважды.

A The Armoury is situated near the Kremlin.

B Originally the Kremlin was wooden.

C New walls and towers of red brick were built in the 15th century.

D The Trinity Gate leads to Red Square.

E The monument to Minin and Pozharsky is the oldest in Moscow.

F The monument to Alexander Pushkin is not far from the monument to Yuri Dolgoruky.

G You can watch ballets in the Maly Theatre.

Утверждение

Соответствие диалогу

Вы услышите интервью с автором детективных романов. В заданиях 3—9 запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2 или 3, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа. Вы услышите запись дважды.

Which benefit of trees has not been mentioned by the speaker?
1) Protection from flooding.
2) Protection from the sun’s rays.
3) Protection from precipitation.
Ответ: .

The smell of pines in the forest is the result of trees releasing

1) oxygen.

2) carbon dioxide.

3) other gasses.

Ответ: .

Scientists want to study how
1) gasses are released by trees into the atmosphere.
2) organic compounds form tiny particles.
3) these particles influence the climate.
Ответ: .

Cloud droplets are unable to

1) absorb solar radiation.

2) reflect solar radiation.

3) scatter solar radiation.

Ответ: .

According to scientists, cloud droplets influence

1) the size of the cloud.

2) the colour of the cloud.

3) the movement of the cloud.

Ответ: .

The actual formation of the clouds is governed
1) only by the formation of cloud droplets.
2) primarily by the formation of cloud droplets.
3) by several different processes.
Ответ: .

A new way of addressing the problem of global warming is by reducing the amount of
1) greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.
2) the sun’s radiation getting through the atmosphere.
3) the sun’s radiation reflected by the clouds.
Ответ: .

Раздел 2. ЧТЕНИЕ

Установите соответствие между заголовками 1—8 и текстами A—G. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу. Используйте каждую цифру только один раз. В задании один заголовок лишний.

1. Exotic Pets
2. Going Back in Time
3. Small Screen Addiction
4. Body Language

5. Massive Destruction
6. Buried Treasure
7. Reason for Extinction
8. Intelligent Enemies

A. The VLT (Very Large Telescope) is the world’s largest telescope and it is taking scientists further back to the Big Bang than they ever thought possible. In other words, the VLT is a kind of a time machine, giving astronomers detailed views of events that took place in the earliest days of the cosmos. One day, we will have a much clearer picture of how our planet was born.

B. The latest development in the debate amongst scientists about what killed the prehistoric dinosaurs is the suggestion that acid rain was the cause. Some geologists suggest that a large meteor hitting the earth at 65 kilometres per second would have led to strongly acidic rain falling all over the world. This idea is fascinating but it would mean the dinosaurs would all have died within a very short time.

C. In 1948, a British farmer discovered an interesting lump of metal while ploughing his field. At first he thought the metal bits were parts of an old bed. Then more ‘parts of old beds’ turned up and the farmer took them to the local museum. ‘But these bits are priceless!’ exclaimed the keeper of the museum. ‘They are Iron Age jewellery and coins!’ Over the next 40 years, more and more items were found in the same field.

D. Rats may have had a bit of a hard time over the years but these days lots of people are forgetting about guinea-pigs and hamsters and are buying rats instead. Domestic rats aren’t the same as the ones that run around rubbish bins — they’re actually quite cute. They are very intelligent and can be trained like dogs. They come in different colours and — a big bonus — they will eat anything!

E. In Western cultures, people look each other in the eye during a conversation to show interest and trust, but in many Asian countries, it’s rude to look people in the eye, especially a superior such as a teacher. One of the most basic and powerful signals is when a person crosses his or her arms across the chest. This can indicate that a person is putting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others.

F. Earthquakes happen all the time in all parts of the world but we don’t notice most of them because they are small. However, big earthquakes are really dangerous. They can make buildings fall down, set off landslides and do other deadly things. The highest death toll caused by an earthquake was in China in 1556, when at least 830,000 people died.

G. According to scientists, Americans watch more TV on average than any other nationality. In fact, many people, particularly children, sit for 35 hours or more per week glued to the box. What’s wrong with watching all that TV? Studies have linked it to everything from obesity to aggression in children not to mention that it puts your mind into a sort of sedated state. Habitual television watching, over long periods of time, has been known to cause depression, and anger.

Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски A—F частями предложений, обозначенными цифрами 1—7. Одна из частей в списке 1—7 лишняя. Занесите цифру, обозначающую соответствующую часть предложения, в таблицу.

The Man Booker Prize for Fiction is awarded every year for the best original full-length novel written by a writer from the Commonwealth or the Republic of Ireland. It aims to represent the greatest in contemporary literature and promotes the finest in fiction by rewarding the best book of the year. The prize was originally called the Booker-McConnell Prize, A ____________. However, it was better-known as simply the ‘Booker Prize’. In 2002, the Man Group became the sponsor and they chose the new name, keeping ‘Booker’.

Publishers can submit books for consideration for the prize, but the judges can also ask for books to be submitted B ____________. Firstly, the Advisory Committee gives advice if there have been any changes to the rules for the prize. Then it selects the people C ____________. The judging panel changes every year and usually a person is only a judge once.

Great efforts are made to ensure that the judging panel is balanced in terms of gender and professions within the industry. A writer, a critic, an editor and an academic are chosen along with a well-known person from wider society. However, when the panel of judges has been finalized, they are left to make their own decisions D ____________. The Man Booker judges include critics, writers and academics E ____________. The influence of the prize is so great that the winner will almost certainly see the considerable sales increase, in addition to the £50,000 F ____________. In 1992, a Booker Russian Novel Prize was introduced.

without any further interference from the prize sponsor
so as to maintain the consistent quality of the prize
who will judge the books
so as to sell them
which was the name of the company that sponsored it
that comes with the prize
they think should be included

Прочитайте текст и выполните задания 12—18. В каждом задании запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа.

‘Have you written a letter to the Froplinsons?’ asked Egbert.

‘No,’ said Janetta, with a note of tired defiance in her voice; ‘I’ve written eleven letters today expressing surprise and gratitude for sundry unmerited gifts, but I haven’t written to the Froplinsons yet.’

‘Someone will have to do it,’ said Egbert.

‘I don’t dispute the necessity, but I don’t think that someone should be me,’ said Janetta. ‘I wouldn’t mind writing a letter of angry recrimination or heartless satire to some suitable recipient. In fact, I should rather enjoy it, but I’ve come to the end of my capacity for expressing servile amiability. Eleven letters today and nine yesterday, all couched in the same strain of ecstatic thankfulness: really, you can’t expect me to sit down to another. There is such a thing as writing oneself out.’

‘I’ve written nearly as many,’ said Egbert, ‘and I’ve had my usual business correspondence to get through, too. Besides, I don’t know what it was that the Froplinsons sent us.’ ‘A William the Conqueror calendar,’ said Janetta, ‘with a quotation of one of his great thoughts for every day in the year.’

‘Impossible,’ said Egbert; ‘he didn’t have three hundred and sixty-five thoughts in the whole of his life, or, if he did, he kept them to himself.’

‘Well, it was William Wordsworth, then,’ said Janetta; ‘I know William came into it somewhere.’

‘That sounds more probable,’ said Egbert; ‘well, let’s collaborate on this letter and get it done. I’ll dictate, and you can scribble it down. ‘Dear Mrs. Froplinson, thank you and your husband so much for the very pretty calendar you sent us. It was very good of you to think of us.’ ’

‘You can’t possibly say that,’ said Janetta, laying down her pen. ‘We sent them something on the twenty-second,’ said Janetta, ‘so they simply had to think of us. There was no getting away from it.’

‘What did we send them?’ asked Egbert gloomily.

‘Bridge-markers,’ said Janetta, ‘in a cardboard case, with some inanity about ‘digging for fortune with a royal spade’ emblazoned on the cover. The moment I saw it in the shop I said to myself ‘Froplinsons’ and to the attendant ‘How much?’ When he said ‘Ninepence,’ I gave him their address, jabbed our card in, paid tenpence or elevenpence to cover the postage, and thanked heaven. With less sincerity and infinitely more trouble they eventually thanked me.’

‘The Froplinsons don’t play bridge,’ said Egbert.

‘One is not supposed to notice social deformities of that sort,’ said Janetta; ‘it wouldn’t be polite. Besides, what trouble did they take to find out whether we read Wordsworth with gladness? For all they knew or cared we might be frantically embedded in the belief that all poetry begins and ends with John Masefield, and it might infuriate or depress us to have a daily sample of Wordsworthian products flung at us.’

‘Well, let’s get on with the letter,’ said Egbert. ‘How clever of you to guess that Wordsworth is our favourite poet.’

Again Janetta laid down her pen.

‘Do you realise what that means?’ she asked; ‘a Wordsworth booklet next Christmas, and another calendar the Christmas after, with the same problem of having to write suitable letters of thankfulness. No, the best thing to do is to drop all further allusion to the calendar and switch off on to some other topic.’

‘But what other topic?’

‘Oh, something like this: ‘What do you think of the New Year Honours List? A friend of ours made such a clever remark when he read it.’ Then you can stick in any remark that comes into your head; it needn’t be clever. The Froplinsons won’t know whether it is or isn’t.’

‘We don’t even know on which side they are in politics,’ objected Egbert; ‘and anyhow you can’t suddenly dismiss the subject of the calendar. Surely there must be some intelligent remark that can be made about it.’

‘Well, we can’t think of one,’ said Janetta wearily; ‘the fact is, we’ve both written ourselves out.’

There was a long silence, the forlorn silence of those who are bereft of hope and have almost ceased to care. Then Egbert started from his seat with an air of resolution. The light of battle was in his eyes.

‘Let me come to the writing-table,’ he exclaimed; ‘I’m going to write to the editor of every enlightened and influential newspaper in the Kingdom, I’m going to suggest that there should be a sort of epistolary Truce of God during the festivities of Christmas and New Year. From the twenty-fourth of December to the third or fourth of January it shall be considered an offence against good sense and good feeling to write or expect any letter or communication that does not deal with the necessary events of the moment. Answers to invitations, arrangements about trains, renewal of club subscriptions, and, of course, all the ordinary everyday affairs of business, sickness, engaging new cooks, and so forth, these will be dealt with in the usual manner as something inevitable. But all the devastating accretions of correspondence, incident to the festive season, these should be swept away to give the season a chance of being really festive.’

‘But you would have to make some acknowledgment of presents received,’ objected Janetta; ‘otherwise people would never know whether they had arrived safely.’

‘Of course, I have thought of that,’ said Egbert; ‘every present that was sent off would be accompanied by a ticket bearing the date of dispatch and the signature of the sender, and some conventional hieroglyphic to show that it was intended to be a Christmas or New Year gift; there would be a counterfoil with space for the recipient’s name and the date of arrival, and all you would have to do would be to sign and date the counterfoil, add a conventional hieroglyphic indicating heartfelt thanks and gratified surprise, put the thing into an envelope and post it.’

‘It sounds delightfully simple,’ said Janetta wistfully, ‘but people would consider it too perfunctory.’

‘It is not a bit more perfunctory than the present system,’ said Egbert; ‘I have only the same conventional language of gratitude at my disposal with which to thank dear old Colonel Chuttle for his perfectly delicious Stilton, which we shall devour to the last morsel, and the Froplinsons for their calendar, which we shall never look at. So you see the present system of acknowledgment is just as perfunctory and conventional as the counterfoil business would be, only ten times more tiresome and brain-racking.’

‘Your plan would certainly bring the idea of a Happy Christmas a step nearer realisation,’ said Janetta. ‘Meanwhile, what am I to say to the Froplinsons?’

(Adapted from ‘Down Pens’ by H. H. Munro)

Egbert and Janetta were writing

1) application letters.
2) thank-you letters.

3) letters of recrimination.
4) letters of complaint.

Ответ: .

Egbert and Janetta didn’t want to write a letter to the Froplinsons because they
1) had both written themselves out.
2) didn’t like this couple.
3) didn’t know what the Froplinsons had sent them.
4) had a lot of work to do.
Ответ: .

Janetta liked her present to the Froplinsons because it was

1) expensive and useless.
2) cheap and useless.

3) expensive and useful.
4) cheap and useful.

Ответ: .

Janetta didn’t want to mention that Wordsworth was their favourite poet because
1) she actually didn’t like his poems.
2) her favourite poet was John Masefield.
3) the Froplinsons would send them new Wordsworth-related presents.
4) she didn’t want the Froplinsons to know the truth.
Ответ: .

Janetta considered the Froplisons to be

1) stupid.

2) clever.

3) kind.

4) mean.

Ответ: .

Egbert suggested that at Christmas people should
1) stop writing letters at all.
2) put off all the everyday affairs of business.
3) not make any acknowledgment of received presents.
4) send counterfoils instead of thank-you letters.
Ответ: .

Janetta considered a new system

1) absolutely impossible.
2) too perfunctory.

3) easy to implement.
4) totally unacceptable.

Ответ: .

Раздел 3. ГРАММАТИКА И ЛЕКСИКА

Прочитайте приведённый ниже текст. Преобразуйте, если необходимо, слова, напечатанные заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номерами 19—25, так, чтобы они грамматически соответствовали содержанию текстов. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый пропуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы 19—25.

Обратите внимание, что по правилам ЕГЭ ответы нужно писать без пробелов и других знаков, например, правильный ответ ‘have done’ нужно будет записать как ‘havedone’, иначе ваш ответ не засчитается.

Swimming Pools

The first heated swimming pool by Gaius Maecenas of Rome in the first century BC.

CON-
STRUCT

Swimming pools became popular in Britain in the beginning of the 19th century. By 1837, London authorities six indoor pools with diving boards.

BUILD

The surviving swimming club in the world is the Arlington Baths Club in Glasgow. It is still an active club and continues to own its original Victorian building with a large pool.

OLD

After the start of modern Olympic Games in 1896, the popularity of swimming pools off. Nowadays there are lots of different swimming pools, both public and private.

TAKE

Most enjoy swimming and swimming pools with their wave-making machines, water slides and tropical vegetation are something unique for them.

CHILD

If they could, kids to spend their entire summer in the swimming pool.

CHOOSE

However, not everyone their own backyard pool.

HAVE

Прочитайте приведённый ниже текст. Образуйте от слов, напечатанных заглавными буквами в конце строк, обозначенных номерами 26—31, однокоренные слова так, чтобы они грамматически и лексически соответствовали содержанию текста. Заполните пропуски полученными словами. Каждый пропуск соответствует отдельному заданию из группы 26—31.

Waste Management

Waste affects our environment — everything that surrounds us including the air, water, land, plants, and man-made things. We need a healthy environment for our own health and .

HAPPY

The waste we create has to be controlled to be sure that it does not harm our environment and our health.

CAREFUL

So waste management is very important.

EFFECT

Waste reduction and recycling have a wide range of environmental benefits and promote public awareness and personal for the waste we create.

RESPON-
SIBLE

The best place to start making a is our home. Learn how you can reduce, reuse, and recycle materials to decrease household waste.

DIFFER

If we recycle what we can’t use any more, we save resources because the materials replace some of the natural resources including water and energy, which we use to make new products.

RECYCLE

Прочитайте текст с пропусками, обозначенными номерами 32—38. Эти номера соответствуют заданиям 32—38, в которых представлены возможные варианты ответов. Запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа.

Globalization and Communication Growth

The 21st century has 32____ in a new era in man’s ongoing quest for a better life and a better world. For the first time in history, we can now claim to live in ‘One World.’ Globalization has removed many of the gaps that have existed between and among nations. While the physical divide is still present, the 33____ of the Information Highway on how we communicate and live in the present day is simply staggering. Rapid improvements in information technology have allowed us to exchange information and communicate almost everywhere, anywhere, and anytime.

Globalization, as a general term, is best understood as the spread of ideas about the environment, democracy, human rights, and less complicated issues like fashion and fads. Global exchange is now taking place as the market of ideas, culture, and beliefs expand through the use of technology. The nature of business and how it is done has also improved by 34____ and bounds because of globalization.

An example of the remarkable effects of globalization is the invention of the telephone and the television. Television has enabled young people and adults to have the ability to share cultural and ethnic experiences with others. Telephones have also greatly improved communication. Gone are the weeks and even months of waiting for a letter. Anybody can talk to anyone who has another phone 35____ of distance or location on the planet. With the aid of satellites, 3rd generation phones allow us to make a phone call, send a video, or even receive an e-mail. These 36____ in communication have revolutionized business, commerce, and even the personal lives and relationships of millions of people.

Because of the electronic media, vast amounts of important information can reach any parts of the globe in 37____ time. Business establishments, whether big or small, are using the Internet in many ways to build or expand their company’s growth. With the ever improving technology come new markets, high 38____ for products, and also greater competition. Making investments in information and communication technology is now a must for any business enterprise.

1) started

2) began

3) ushered

4) launched

Ответ: .

1) cause

2) impact

3) consequences

4) result

Ответ: .

1) bonds

2) gaps

3) jumps

4) leaps

Ответ: .

1) regardless

2) despite

3) notwithstanding

4) because

Ответ: .

1) breakbeats

2) breakdowns

3) breakouts

4) breakthroughs

Ответ: .

1) any

2) no

3) none of

4) some

Ответ: .

1) access

2) claim

3) demand

4) rise

Ответ: .

Ваш результат: пока 0.

Далее вы можете набрать еще 40 баллов. Автоматически это проверить нельзя, поэтому сделайте реалистичный прогноз о том, сколько бы вы смогли набрать баллов, и получите ваш итоговый результат ЕГЭ.

Если возник вопрос по ответу, в котором вы ошиблись, можете задать его в комментариях.

Раздел 4. ПИСЬМО

Для ответов на задания 39 и 40 используйте бланк ответов № 2. Черновые пометки можно делать прямо на листе с заданиями, или можно использовать отдельный черновик. При выполнении заданий 39 и 40 особое внимание обратите на то, что Ваши ответы будут оцениваться только по записям, сделанным в БЛАНКЕ ОТВЕТОВ № 2. Никакие записи черновика не будут учитываться экспертом. Обратите внимание также на необходимость соблюдения указанного объёма текста. Тексты недостаточного объёма, а также часть текста, превышающая требуемый объём, не оцениваются. Запишите сначала номер задания (39, 40), а затем ответ на него. Если одной стороны бланка недостаточно, Вы можете использовать другую его сторону.

You have received a letter from your English-speaking pen friend Jessica who writes:

… By the way, we are doing a project at college on the fashion industry in different countries. It would be nice if you could tell me what clothes are popular with teenagers in Russia. Do you have any special fashion for teens? What kind of clothes do you prefer? Why?

As for me, I bought a new dress yesterday …

Write a letter to Jessica.
In your letter
— answer her questions
— ask 3 questions about her tastes in clothes
Write 100 — 140 words.
Remember the rules of letter writing.

За это задание вы можете получить 6 баллов максимум.

Comment on the following statement.

Lots of people enjoy celebrating holidays. However, for some people a holiday is just a day off.

What is your attitude to celebrations? Which way of celebrating holidays do you find more enjoyable?

Write 200 — 250 words.

— make an introduction (state the problem)
— express your personal opinion and give 2—3 reasons for your opinion
— express an opposing opinion and give 1—2 reasons for this opposing opinion
— explain why you don’t agree with the opposing opinion
— make a conclusion restating your position

За это задание вы можете получить 14 баллов максимум.

Раздел 5. ГОВОРЕНИЕ

— За 1,5 минуты нужно подготовиться и в следующие 1,5 минуты выразительно прочитать текст вслух — 1 балл.
— Составление 5 вопросов на основе ключевых слов. На подготовку отводится 1,5 минуты, затем каждый вопрос надо сформулировать в течение 20 секунд — 5 баллов.
— 3 фотографии. Нужно выбрать 1 и описать ее по предложенному тут же в задании плану за 3,5 минуты — 7 баллов.
— 2 картинки. Нужно сравнить их, описать сходства и различия, объяснить, почему выбранная тематика близка выпускнику, за 3,5 минуты — 7 баллов.

Установите соответствие тем 1 — 8 текстам A — G. Занесите свои ответы в соответствующее поле справа. Используйте каждую цифру только один раз. В задании одна тема лишняя.

1. Women doing men’s jobs

2. Holidays — the best time to visit

3. Ideal to grow a man

4. A costume for a mythic sea creature

5. The best profession for a lady

6. A festival to a season

7. Words for all times

8. Best clothes for burial

A. Mary is a professional dress-maker specializing in exotic costumes. She devotes many hours to crafting mermaid tails and hand-made tops. Her professional mermaid costume includes a tail and a top. A tail is made of the finest silicone that bends naturally with movement and looks beautifully on film and in print. Out of the depths of the water her costume shines with hundreds ot pearls, crystals, and gemstones.

B. Today’s well-educated person uses about 18,000 words. Shakespeare, whose plays written for a small theatre are now performed in more countries than ever before, used over 34,000 different words, thousands of which he made up. For example: accessible, roadway, schoolboy, and watchdog. Many of his phrases have fallen into everyday use in our language today, including, “A horse, a horse! My kingdom for a horse!’’ by Richard III.

C. The Celtic division of the year was into two parts. The winter half was considered the beginning of the year, and the summer half the second part. There were two further subdivisions. so the year was finally divided into the standard four seasons. At each of these four stages, a Fire Festival was celebrated. It involved religious ceremonies, music, storytelling, and poetry. These great festivals were regarded to be the best time.

D. As symbols of respect and courage, knights turned out to be an intriguing mix of all the things that made males the best, as their education included the most effective sorts of exercises for the brain and the human body. Knight tournaments were a good way for the knights to try out the actual travails of fighting and never having to go through the pain and troubles of having to look after themselves, and of their kingdoms.

E. Were there any women pirates in Renaissance England? They were in the minority, but they were never the less there and very able. Lady Mary was a daughter of a pirate and married to a pirate. When her husband died, she recruited her castle staff and went to sea herself. Her luck ran out when she captured a German captain, who was a friend of Queen Elizabeth. So Lady Mary quit piracy … and started selling stolen goods.

F. Russia is an amazing holiday destination. It should be visited during the festival season, as it reveals the rich cultural tradition and fascinating customs of its people. While the festivals come from the Christian legacy Russia shares with Europe and America, the manner of celebration is unique. Enthusiastic travelers suggest planning a Russian holiday during the festival time and to be sure that the memories will last a lifetime!

G. Normally very fine textiles are found in graves. Obviously, the quality of clothing worn in the Middle Ages would reduce with lower ranks, but even the slaves did not wear cloth as rough as people thought in the past and some still do today. Slaves would probably wear their master’s clothes, which may have been very thin in places and not decorated. They would usually receive the underclothes to be worn as overclothes.

Источник

The grammar of American Sign Language (ASL) is the best studied of any sign language, though research is still in its infancy, dating back only to William Stokoe in the 1960s.^{[citation needed]}

MorphologyEdit

ASL morphology is to a large extent iconic.^{[dubious – discuss]}^{[citation needed]} This shows up especially well in reduplication and indexicality.

DerivationEdit

Compounding is used to derive new words in ASL, which often differ in meaning from their constituent signs.^[1] For example, the signs FACE and STRONG compound to create a new sign FACE^STRONG, meaning ‘to resemble’.^[1] Compounds undergo the phonetic process of «hold deletion», whereby the holds at the end of the first constituent and the beginning of the second are elided:^[1]

ASL compounding^[2]

Individual signs	Compound sign
FACE	STRONG	FACE^STRONG
MH	HMH	MMH

Many ASL nouns are derived from verbs.^[2] This may be done either by reduplicating the movement of the verb if the verb has a single movement, or by restraining (making smaller and faster) the movement of the verb if it already has repeated movement.^[3] For example, the noun CHAIR is derived from the verb SIT through reduplication.^[3] Another productive method is available for deriving nouns from non-stative verbs.^[4] This form of derivation modifies the verb’s movement, reduplicating it in a «trilled» manner («small, quick, stiff movements»).^[4] For example, this method is used to derive the noun ACTION from the verb ACT.^[4]

Characteristic adjectives, which refer to inherent states, may be derived from adjectives which refer to «incidental or temporary states».^[5] Characteristic adjectives always use both hands, even if the source adjective only uses one, and they always have repeated, circular movement.^[5] Additionally, if the source adjective was one-handed, the derived adjective has alternating movement.^[5] «Trilling» may also be used productively to derive adjectives with an «ish» meaning, e.g. BLUE becomes BLUISH.^[6]

ASL occasionally uses suffixation in derivation, but less often than in English.^[6] Agent nouns may be derived from verbs by adding the suffix AGENT and deleting the final hold of the verb, e.g. TEACH+AGENT ‘teacher’.^[6] Superlatives are also formed by suffixation, e.g. SMART+MOST ‘smartest’.^[7]

Certain types of signs, for example those relating to time and age, may incorporate numbers by assimilating their handshape.^[7] For example, the word WEEK has handshape /B/ with the weak hand and /1/ with the active hand; the active hand’s handshape may be changed to the handshape of any number up to 9 to indicate that many weeks.^[7]

There are about 20 non-manual modifiers in ASL, which are either adjectival or adverbial.^[8] For example, the adverb ‘th‘, realized as the tongue being placed between the teeth, means ‘carelessly / lazily’ when combined with a verb:^[9]

JOHN

WRITE

LETTER

‘John writes a letter.’

‘John writes a letter carelessly.’

DegreeEdit

Mouthing is when an individual appears to be making speech sounds, and this is very important for fluent signing. It also has specific morphological uses. For example, one may sign ‘man tall’ to indicate the man is tall, but by mouthing the syllable cha while signing ‘tall’, the phrase becomes that man is enormous!

There are other ways of modifying a verb or adjective to make it more intense. These are all more or less equivalent to adding the word «very» in English; which morphology is used depends on the word being modified. Certain words which are short in English, such as ‘sad’ and ‘mad’, are sometimes fingerspelled rather than signed to mean ‘very sad’ and ‘very mad’. However, the concept of ‘very sad’ or ‘very mad’ can be portrayed with the use of exaggerated body movements and facial expressions. Reduplication of the signs may also occur to emphasize the degree of the statement. Some signs are produced with an exaggeratedly large motion, so that they take up more sign space than normal. This may involve a back-and-forth scissoring motion of the arms to indicate that the sign ought to be yet larger, but that one is physically incapable of making it big enough. Many other signs are given a slow, tense production. The fact that this modulation is morphological rather than merely mimetic can be seen in the sign for ‘fast’: both ‘very slow’ and ‘very fast’ are signed by making the motion either unusually slowly or unusually quickly than it is in the citation forms of ‘slow’ and ‘fast’—not exclusively by making it slower for ‘very slow’ and faster for ‘very fast’.

ReduplicationEdit

Reduplication is morphological repetition, and this is extremely common in ASL. Generally the motion of the sign is shortened as well as repeated. Nouns may be derived from verbs through reduplication. For example, the noun chair is formed from the verb to sit by repeating it with a reduced degree of motion. Similar relationships exist between acquisition and to get, airplane and to fly (on an airplane), also window and to open/close a window. Reduplication is commonly used to express intensity as well as several verbal aspects (see below). It is also used to derive signs such as ‘every two weeks’ from ‘two weeks’, and is used for verbal number (see below), where the reduplication is iconic for the repetitive meaning of the sign.

CompoundsEdit

Many ASL words are historically compounds. However, the two elements of these signs have fused, with features being lost from one or both, to create what might be better called a blend than a compound. Typically only the final hold (see above) remains from the first element, and any reduplication is lost from the second.

An example is the verb AGREE, which derives from the two signs THINK and ALIKE. The verb THINK is signed by bringing a 1 hand inward and touching the forehead (a move and a hold). ALIKE is signed by holding two 1 hands parallel, pointing outward, and bringing them together two or three times. The compound/blend AGREE starts as THINK ends: with the index finger touching the forehead (the final hold of that sign). In addition, the weak hand is already in place, in anticipation of the next part of the sign. Then the hand at the forehead is brought down parallel to the weak hand; it approaches but does not make actual contact, and there is no repetition.

AffixesEdit

ASL, like other mature signed languages, makes extensive use of morphology.^[10] Many of ASL’s affixes are combined simultaneously rather than sequentially. For example, Ted Supalla’s seminal work on ASL verbs of motion revealed that these signs consist of many different affixes, articulated simultaneously according to complex grammatical constraints.^[11] This differs from the concatenative morphology of many spoken languages, which except for suprasegmental features such as tone are tightly constrained by the sequential nature of voice sounds.

ASL does have a limited number of concatenative affixes. For example, the agentive suffix (similar to the English ‘-er’) is made by placing two B or 5 hands in front of the torso, palms facing each other, and lowering them. On its own this sign means ‘person’; in a compound sign following a verb, it is a suffix for the performer of the action, as in ‘drive-er’ and ‘teach-er’. However, it cannot generally be used to translate English ‘-er’, as it is used with a much more limited set of verbs. It is very similar to the ‘-ulo’ suffix in Esperanto, meaning ‘person’ by itself and ‘-related person’ when combined with other words.

An ASL prefix, (touching the chin), is used with number signs to indicate ‘years old’. The prefix completely assimilates with the initial handshape of the number. For instance, ‘fourteen’ is signed with a B hand that bends several times at the knuckles. The chin-touch prefix in ‘fourteen years old’ is thus also made with a B hand. For ‘three years old’, however, the prefix is made with a 3 hand.

Numeral incorporation and classifiers Edit

Rather than relying on sequential affixes, ASL makes heavy use of simultaneous modification of signs. One example of this is found in the aspectual system (see below); another is numeral incorporation: There are several families of two-handed signs which require one of the hands to take the handshape of a numeral. Many of these deal with time. For example, drawing the dominant hand lengthwise across the palm and fingers of a flat B hand indicates a number of weeks; the dominant hand takes the form of a numeral from one to nine to specify how many weeks. There are analogous signs for ‘weeks ago’ and ‘weeks from now’, etc., though in practice several of these signs are only found with the lower numerals.

ASL also has a system of classifiers which may be incorporated into signs.^[12] A fist may represent an inactive object such as a rock (this is the default or neutral classifier), a horizontal ILY hand may represent an aircraft, a horizontal 3 hand (thumb pointing up and slightly forward) a motor vehicle, an upright G hand a person on foot, an upright V hand a pair of people on foot, and so on through higher numbers of people. These classifiers are moved through sign space to iconically represent the actions of their referents. For example, an ILY hand may ‘lift off’ or ‘land on’ a horizontal B hand to sign an aircraft taking off or landing; a 3 hand may be brought down on a B hand to sign parking a car; and a G hand may be brought toward a V hand to represent one person approaching two.

The frequency of classifier use depends greatly on genre, occurring at a rate of 17.7% in narratives but only 1.1% in casual speech and 0.9% in formal speech.^[13]

FramesEdit

Frames are a morphological device that may be unique to sign languages (Liddell 2004). They are incomplete sets of the features which make up signs, and they combine with existing signs, absorbing features from them to form a derived sign. It is the frame which specifies the number and nature of segments in the resulting sign, while the basic signs it combines with lose all but one or two of their original features.

One, the ^WEEKLY frame, consists of a simple downward movement. It combines with the signs for the days of the week, which then lose their inherent movement. For example, ‘Monday’ consists of an M/O hand made with a circling movement. ‘Monday^WEEKLY‘ (that is, ‘on Mondays’) is therefore signed as an M/O hand that drops downward, but without the circling movement. A similar ^{ALL DAY} frame (a sideward pan) combines with times of the day, such as ‘morning’ and ‘afternoon’, which likewise keep their handshape and location but lose their original movement. Numeral incorporation (see above) also uses frames. However, in ASL frames are most productively utilized for verbal aspect.

Verbal aspectEdit

While there is no grammatical tense in ASL, there are numerous verbal aspects. These are produced by modulating the verb: Through reduplication, by placing the verb in an aspectual frame (see above), or with a combination of these means.

An example of an aspectual frame is the unrealized inceptive aspect (‘just about to X’), illustrated here with the verb ‘to tell’. ‘To tell’ is an indexical (directional) verb, where the index finger (a G hand) begins with a touch to the chin and then moves outward to point out the recipient of the telling. ‘To be just about to tell’ retains just the locus and the initial chin touch, which now becomes the final hold of the sign; all other features from the basic verb (in this case, the outward motion and pointing) are dropped and replaced by features from the frame (which are shared with the unrealized inceptive aspects of other verbs such as ‘look at’, ‘wash the dishes’, ‘yell’, ‘flirt’, etc.). These frame features are: Eye gaze toward the locus (which is no longer pointed at with the hand), an open jaw, and a hand (or hands, in the case of two-hand verbs) in front of the trunk which moves in an arc to the onset location of the basic verb (in this case, touching the chin), while the trunk rotates and the signer inhales, catching her breath during the final hold. The hand shape throughout the sign is whichever is required by the final hold, in this case a G hand.

The variety of aspects in ASL can be illustrated by the verb ‘to be sick’, which involves the middle finger of the Y/8 hand touching the forehead, and which can be modified by a large number of frames. Several of these involve reduplication, which may but need not be analyzed as part of the frame. (The appropriate non-manual features are not described here.)

stative «to be sick» is made with simple iterated contact, typically with around four iterations. This is the basic, citation form of the verb.
inchoative «to get sick, to take sick» is made with a single straight movement to contact and a hold of the finger on the forehead.
predisposional «to be sickly, to be prone to get sick» is made with incomplete motion: three even circular cycles without contact. This aspect adds reduplication to verbs such as ‘to look at’ which do not already contain repetition.
susceptative «to get sick easily» is made with a thrusting motion: The onset is held; then there is a brief, tense thrust that is checked before actual contact can be made.
frequentative «to be often sick» is given a marcato articulation: A regular beat, with 4–6 iterations, and marked onsets and holds.
susceptive and frequentative may be combined to mean «to get sick easily and often»: Four brief thrusts on a marked, steady beat, without contact with the forehead.
protractive «to be continuously sick» is made with a long, tense hold and no movement at all.
incessant «to get sick incessantly» has a reduplicated tremolo articulation: A dozen tiny, tense, uneven iterations, as rapid as possible and without contact.
durative «to be sick for a long time» is made with a reduplicated elliptical motion: Three slow, uneven cycles, with a heavy downward brush of the forehead and an arching return.
iterative «to get sick over and over again» is made with three tense movements and slow returns to the onset position.
intensive «to be very sick» is given a single tense articulation: A tense onset hold followed by a single very rapid motion to a long final hold.
resultative «to become fully sick» (that is, a complete change of health) is made with an accelerando articulation: A single elongated tense movement which starts slowly and heavily, accelerating to a long final hold.
approximative «to be sort of sick, to be a little sick» is made with a reduplicated lax articulation: A spacially extremely reduced, minimal movement, involving a dozen iterations without contact.
semblitive «to appear to be sick» [no description]
increasing «to get more and more sick» is made with the movements becoming more and more intense.

These modulations readily combine with each other to create yet finer distinctions. Not all verbs take all aspects, and the forms they do take will not necessarily be completely analogous to the verb illustrated here. Conversely, not all aspects are possible with this one verb.

Aspect is unusual in ASL in that transitive verbs derived for aspect lose their transitivity. That is, while you can sign ‘dog chew bone’ for the dog chewed on a bone, or ‘she look-at me’ for she looked at me, you cannot do the same in the durative to mean the dog gnawed on the bone or she stared at me. Instead, you must use other strategies, such as a topic construction (see below) to avoid having an object for the verb.

Verbal numberEdit

Reduplication is also used for expressing verbal number. Verbal number indicates that the action of the verb is repeated; in the case of ASL it is apparently limited to transitive verbs, where the motion of the verb is either extended or repeated to cover multiple object or recipient loci. (Simple plurality of action can also be conveyed with reduplication, but without indexing any object loci; in fact, such aspectual forms do not allow objects, as noted above.) There are specific dual forms (and for some signers trial forms), as well as plurals. With dual objects, the motion of the verb may be made twice with one hand, or simultaneously with both; while with plurals the object loci may be taken as a group by using a single sweep of the signing hand while the verbal motion is being performed, or individuated by iterating the move across the sweep. For example, ‘to ask someone a question’ is signed by flexing the index finger of an upright G hand in the direction of that person; the dual involves flexing it at both object loci (sequentially with one hand or simultaneously with both), the simple plural involves a single flexing which spans the object group while the hand arcs across it, and the individuated plural involves multiple rapid flexings while the hand arcs. If the singular verb uses reduplication, that is lost in the dual and plural forms.

Name signsEdit

There are three types of personal name signs in ASL: fingerspelled, arbitrary, and descriptive. Fingerspelled names are simply spelled out letter-by-letter. Arbitrary name signs only refer to a person’s name, while descriptive name signs refer to a person’s personality or physical characteristics.^[14] Once given, names are for life, apart from changing from one of the latter types to an arbitrary sign in childhood.^{[citation needed]}^[15] Name signs are usually assigned by another member of the Deaf community, and signal inclusion in that community. Name signs are not used to address people, as names are in English, but are used only for third-person reference, and usually only when the person is absent.^[16]

The majority of people, probably well in excess of 90%, have arbitrary name signs. These are initialized signs: The hand shape is the initial of one of the English names of the person, usually the first.^[17] The sign may occur in neutral space, with a tremble; with a double-tap (as a noun) at one of a limited number of specific locations, such as the side of the chin, the temple, or the elbow;^[18] or moving across a location or between two locations, with a single tap at each.^[19] Single-location signs are simpler in connotation, like English «Vee»; double-location signs are fancier, like English «Veronica». Sam Supalla (1992) collected 525 simple arbitrary name signs like these.

There are two constraints on arbitrary signs. First, it should not mean anything. That is, it should not duplicate an existing ASL word.^[20] Second, there should not be more than one person with the name sign in the local community. If a person moves to a new community where someone already has their name sign, then the newcomer is obligated to modify theirs^{[dubious – discuss]}. This is usually accomplished by compounding the hand shape, so that the first tap of the sign takes the initial of the person’s first English name, and the second tap takes the initial of their last name. There are potentially thousands of such compound-initial signs.

Descriptive name signs are not initialized, but rather use non-core ASL signs. They tend to be assigned and used by children, rather like «Blinky» in English. Parents do not give such names to their children, but most Deaf people do not have deaf parents and are assigned their name sign by classmates in their first school for the deaf. At most 10% of Deaf people retain such name signs into adulthood.^{[citation needed]}. Arbitrary name signs became established very early in the history of ASL. Descriptive name signs refer to a person’s appearance or personality.^{[citation needed]}

The two systems, arbitrary and descriptive, are sometimes combined, usually for humorous purposes. Hearing people learning ASL are also often assigned combined name signs. This is not traditional for Deaf people. Sometimes people with very short English names, such as «Ann» or «Lee», or ones that flow easily, such as «Larry», may never acquire a name sign, but may instead be referred to with finger-spelling.

Word orderEdit

Default word order is SVOEdit

ASL is a subject-verb-object (SVO) language.^[21]

Edit

The default SVO word order is sometimes altered by processes including topicalization and null elements;^[22] this is marked either with non-manual signals like eyebrow or body position, or with prosodic marking such as pausing.^[21] These non-manual grammatical markings (such as eyebrow movement or head-shaking) may optionally spread over the c-command domain of the node which it is attached to.^[23] However, ASL is a pro-drop language, and when the manual sign that a non-manual grammatical marking is attached to is omitted, the non-manual marking obligatorily spreads over the c-command domain.^[24]

The full sentence structure in ASL is [topic] [subject] verb [object] [subject-pronoun-tag]. Topics and tags are both indicated with non-manual features, and both give a great deal of flexibility to ASL word order.^[25] Within a noun phrase, the word order is noun-number and noun-adjective.

ASL does not have a copula (linking ‘to be’ verb).^[26] For example:

[name

my]^TOPIC

P-E-T-E

my name is Pete

Noun-adjective orderEdit

In addition to its basic topic–comment structure, ASL typically places an adjective after a noun, though it may occur before the noun for stylistic purposes. Numerals also occur after the noun, a very rare pattern among oral languages.

DOG

BROWN

HAVE

I have a brown dog.

Adverbs, however, occur before the verbs. Most of the time adverbs are simply the same sign as an adjective, distinguished by the context of the sentence.

HOUSE

QUIET

ENTER

I enter the house quietly.

When the scope of the adverb is the entire clause, as in the case of time, it comes before the topic. This is the only thing which can appear before the topic in ASL: time–topic–comment.

9-HOUR

MORNING

STORE

I’m going to the store at 9:00AM.

Modal verbs come after the main verb of the clause:

FOR

YOU,

STORE

CAN

I can go to the store for you.

Time-sequenced clause orderingEdit

ASL makes heavy use of time-sequenced ordering, meaning that events are signed in the order in which they occur. For example, for I was late to class last night because my boss handed me a huge stack of work after lunch yesterday, one would sign ‘YESTERDAY LUNCH FINISH, BOSS GIVE-me WORK BIG-STACK, NIGHT CLASS LATE-me’. In stories, however, ordering is malleable, since one can choose to sequence the events either in the order in which they occurred or in the order in which one found out about them.

Tense and aspectEdit

It has been claimed that tense in ASL is marked adverbially, and that ASL lacks a separate category of tense markers.^[27] However, Aarons et al. (1992, 1995) argue that «Tense» (T) is indeed a distinct category of syntactic head, and that the T node can be occupied either by a modal (e.g. SHOULD) or a lexical tense marker (e.g. FUTURE-TENSE).^[27] They support this claim by noting that only one such item can occupy the T slot:^[28]

REUBEN

CAN

RENT

VIDEO-TAPE

‘Reuben can rent a video tape.’

REUBEN

WILL

RENT

VIDEO-TAPE

‘Reuben will rent a video tape.’

REUBEN

CAN

WILL

RENT

VIDEO-TAPE

* ‘Reuben can will rent a video tape.’

Aspect may be marked either by verbal inflection or by separate lexical items.^[29]

These are ordered: Tense – Negation – Aspect – Verb:^[30]

		neg	(non-manual negation marker)
GINGER	SHOULD	NOT	EAT	BEEF
‘Ginger should not eat beef.’

	neg
DAVE	NOT	FINISH	SEE	MOVIE
‘Dave did not see (to completion) the movie.’

Aspect, topics, and transitivityEdit

As noted above, in ASL aspectually marked verbs cannot take objects. To deal with this, the object must be known from context so that it does not need to be further specified. This is accomplished in two ways:

The object may be made prominent in a prior clause, or
It may be used as the topic of the utterance at hand.

Of these two strategies, the first is the more common. For my friend was typing her term paper all night to be used with a durative aspect, this would result in

my friend type T-E-R-M paper. type^DURATIVE all-night

The less colloquial topic construction may come out as,

[my friend]^TOPIC, [T-E-R-M paper]^TOPIC, type^DURATIVE all-night

CP SyntaxEdit

Topics and main clausesEdit

A topic sets off background information that will be discussed in the following main clause. Topic constructions are not often used in standard English, but they are common in some dialects, as in,

That dog, I never could hunt him.

Topicalization is used productively in ASL and often results in surface forms that do not follow the basic SVO word order.^[31] In order to non-manually mark topics, the eyebrows are raised and the head is tilted back during the production of a topic. The head is often lowered toward the end of the sign, and sometimes the sign is followed rapidly nodding the head. A slight pause follows the topic, setting it off from the rest of the sentence:^[32]

[MEAT]^tm,

LAMB

As for meat, I prefer lamb.

Another way topics may be signed is by shifting the body. The signer may use the space on one side of his/her body to sign the topic, and then shifts to the other side for the rest of the sentence.^[32]

ASL utterances do not require topics, but their use is extremely common. They are used for purposes of information flow, to set up referent loci (see above), and to supply objects for verbs which are grammatically prevented from taking objects themselves (see below).

Without a topic, the dog chased my cat is signed:

DOG

CHASE

CAT

The dog chased my cat

However, people tend to want to set up the object of their concern first and then discuss what happened to it. English does this with passive clauses: my cat was chased by the dog. In ASL, topics are used with similar effect:

[MY

CAT]^tm

DOG

CHASE

lit. ‘my cat, the dog chased it.’

If the word order of the main clause is changed, the meaning of the utterance also changes:

[MY

CAT]^tm

CHASE

DOG

‘my cat chased the dog,’
lit. ‘my cat, it chased the dog.’

There are three types of non-manual topic markers, all of which involve raised eyebrows.^[33] The three types of non-manual topic markers are used with different types of topics and in different contexts, and the topic markings cannot spread over other elements in the utterance. Topics can be moved from and remain null in the main clause of an utterance, or topics can be base-generated and either be co-referential to either the subject or object in the main clause or be related to the subject of object by a semantic property.^[34]

The first type of non-manual marking, topic marking 1 (tm1), is only used with a moved topic.^[35] Tm1 is characterized by raised eyebrows, widened eyes, and head tilted backwards. At the end of the sign the head moves down and there is a pause, often with an eye blink, before the sentence is continued.^[36] The following is an example of a context in which the tm1 marking is used:

[MARY]^tm¹

JOHN

LOVE

‘Mary, John loves,’ or ‘John loves Mary’^[37]

Topic marking 2 (tm2) and topic marking 3 (tm3) are both used with base-generated topics. Tm2 is characterized by raised eyebrows, widened eyes, and the head tilted backwards and to the side. Toward the end of the sign the head moves forward and to the opposite side, and there is a pause and often an eye blink before continuing.^[38] For tm3 the eyebrows are raised and the eyes are opened wide, the head starts tilted down and jerks up and down, the lips are opened and raised, and the head is nodded rapidly a few times before pausing and continuing the sentence. Although both tm2 and tm3 accompany base-generated topics, they are used in different contexts. Tm2 is used to introduce new information and change the topic of a conversation to something that the signer is going to subsequently characterize, while tm3 is used to introduce new information that the signer believes is already known by his/her interlocutor.^[39] Tm2 may be used with any base-generated topic, whereas only topics that are co-referential with an argument in the sentence may be marked with tm3.^[40]

An example of a tm2 marking used with a topic related to the object of the main clause is:

[VEGETABLE]^tm²,

JOHN

CORN

‘As for vegetables, John likes corn.’^[38]

An example of a tm2 marking used with a co-referential topic is:

[FRESH

VEGETABLE]^tm³,

JOHN

IX-3rd

‘As for fresh vegetables, John likes them.’^[41]

IX-3rd represents a 3rd person index.

Another example of a tm2 marking with a co-referential topic is:

[JOHN_i]^tm²,

IX-3rd_i

LOVE

MARY

‘as for John, he loves Mary’^[41]

An example of a tm3 topic marking is:

[JOHN_i]^tm³,

IX-3rd_i

LOVE

MARY

‘(you know) John, he loves Mary’^[42]

ASL sentences may have up to two marked topics.^[33] Possible combinations of topic types are two tm2 topics, two tm3 topics, tm2 preceding tm1, tm3 preceding tm1, and tm2 preceding tm3. Sentences with these topic combinations in the opposite orders or with two tm1 topics are considered ungrammatical by native signers.^[43]

Relative clausesEdit

Relative clauses are signaled by tilting back the head and raising the eyebrows and upper lip. This is done during the performance of the entire clause. There is no change in word order. For example:

[recently

dog

chase

cat]^RELATIVE

come

home

The dog which recently chased the cat came home

where the brackets here indicate the duration of the non-manual features. If the sign ‘recently’ were made without these features, it would lie outside the relative clause, and the meaning would change to «the dog which chased the cat recently came home».

Negated clausesEdit

Negated clauses may be signaled by shaking the head during the entire clause. A topic, however, cannot be so negated; the headshake can only be produced during the production of the main clause. (A second type of negation starts with the verb and continues to the end of the clause.)

In addition, in many communities, negation is put at the end of the clause, unless there is a wh- question word. For example, the sentence, «I thought the movie was not good,» could be signed as, «BEFORE MOVIE ME SEE, THINK WHAT? IT GOOD NOT.»

There are two manual signs that negate a sentence, NOT and NONE, which are accompanied by a shake of the head. NONE is typically used when talking about possession:

DOG

HAVE

NONE

I don’t have any dogs.

NOT negates a verb:

TENNIS

PLAY

NOT

I don’t like to play tennis.

Interrogative clausesEdit

There are three types of questions with different constructions in ASL: wh- questions, yes/no questions, and rhetorical questions.^[44]

Non-manual grammatical markingsEdit

Non-manual grammatical markings are grammatical and semantic features that do not include the use of hands. They can include mouth shape, eye gazes, facial expressions, body shifting, head tilting, and eyebrow raising. Non -manual grammatical markings can also aid in identifying sentence type, which is especially relevant to our discussion of different types of interrogatives.^[45]

Wh-questionsEdit

Wh-questions can be formed in a variety of ways in ASL. The wh-word can appear solely at the end of the sentence, solely at the beginning of the sentence, at both the beginning and end of the sentence (see section 4.4.2.1 on ‘double-occurring wh-words’, or in situ (i.e. where the wh-word is in the sentence structure before movement occurs)).^[46] Manual wh-signs are also accompanied by a non-manual grammatical marking (see section 4.4.1), which can include a variety of features.^[47] This non-manual grammatical marking can spread optionally over the entire wh-phrase or just a small part.

Some languages have very few wh-words, where context and discourse are sufficient to elicit the information that one needs. ASL has many different wh-words, with certain wh-words having multiple variations. A list of the wh-words of ASL can be found below. WHAT, WHAT-DO, WHAT-FOR, WHAT-PU, WHAT- FS, WHEN, WHERE, WHICH, WHO (several variations), WHY, HOW, HOW-MANY^[48]

Double-occurring wh-wordsEdit

As mentioned above, ASL possesses wh-questions with word initial placement, word final placement, in situ structure, but the most unique style of wh-word occurrence in ASL is where the wh-word occurs twice, copied in final position.^[49] This doubling can be seen in the table below.

WHAT	JOHN	BUY	WHAT
‘what did John buy’

This doubling provides a useful template to analyze 2 separate analyses about whether wh-words move rightward or leftward in ASL. While some researchers argue for rightward movement in wh- questions such as Aarons and Neidle,^[50] others, including Petronio and Lillo-Martin, have argued that ASL has leftward movement and wh- words that appear to the right of the clause move by other processes.^[51] Both analyses agree upon the fact that there is wh-movement present in these interrogative phrases, but it is a matter of what direction the wh-movement is moving in that causes controversy. No matter what direction the wh-movement is analyzed to go in, it is crucial to the analysis that the movement of the wh-element is to the position of SPEC CP^[52]

Leftward Wh-movement Analysis in American Sign Language

Lillo-Martin & Fischer’s, and Petronio’s leftward wh-movement analysisEdit

Summary of the leftward wh-movement analysis in American Sign Language:

The leftward movement analysis is congruent with cross linguistic data that wh-movement is always leftward. It can be seen as the less controversial of the 2 proposals. The main arguments presented by the Leftward Wh-movement analysis are: That the spec-CP is on the left, that the wh-movement is leftward, and that the final wh-word in a sentence is a base-generated double. This is illustrated in the syntax tree located to the right of this paragraph.^[53] Arguments for leftward movement are based on the facts that if wh-movement in ASL were rightward, ASL would be an exception to cross-linguistic generalizations that wh-movement is leftward.^[51]

It has also been hypothesized that wh-elements cannot be topicalized, as topicalized elements must be presupposed and interrogatives are not.^[54] This would be detrimental to the rightward analysis, as they are analyzing the doubled wh-word as a ‘base generated topic’.

Aarons et al.’s rightward wh-movement analysisEdit

Summary of the rightward wh-movement analysis in American Sign Language

Rightward Wh-movement Analysis in American Sign Language

The rightward movement analysis is a newer, more abstract argument of how wh-movement occurs in ASL. The main arguments for rightward movement begin by analyzing spec-CP as being on the right, the wh-movement as being rightward, and as the initial wh-word as a base-generated topic.^[55] This can be seen in the syntax tree on the right.

One of the rightward movement analysis’ main arguments is in regards to the non-manual grammatical markings, and their optional spreading over the sentence. In ASL the use of non-manual grammatical markings is optional depending on the type of wh-question being asked. In the rightward analysis both partial and full spreading of non-manual grammatical markers can be accounted for due to the association with the +WH feature over its c-command domain.^[56] In the leftward analysis, the partial or full spreading of non manual grammatical markings cannot be accounted for in this same way. The leftward movement analysis requires wh-marking to extend over the entirety of the question, regardless (which is not what is attested in ASL).

Yes/no questionsEdit

In spoken language Yes/no questions will oftentimes differ in their word order from the statement form. For example, in English:

English Statement:

HE WILL BUY THE SHIRT.

English Yes/no Q:

WILL HE BUY THE SHIRT?^[57]

In ASL, yes/no questions are marked by the non-manual grammatical markings (as discussed in section 4.4.1). This eyebrow raise, slight tilt of the head and lean forward are what indicate that a yes/no question is being asked, without any change in word order from the statement form. There is speculation amongst linguists that these non-manual grammatical markings that indicate a yes/no questions are similar to the question intonation of spoken languages.^[58]

Yes/no questions differ from wh-questions as they do not differ in word order from the original statement form of the sentence, whereas wh-questions do. As well, in yes/no questions, the non-manual marking must be used over the whole utterance in order for it to be judged as a statement opposed to a question.^[59] The yes/no question is the same word order as the statement form of the sentence, with the addition of non-manual grammatical markings. This can be seen in the examples below.

ASL Statement:

JUAN WILL BUY SHOES TODAY
«Juan will buy shoes today»

ASL Yes/no Question:

_____________________brow raise

JUAN WILL BUY SHOES TODAY

«Will Juan buy shoes today?»^[60]

Rhetorical questionsEdit

Non-manual grammatical markings are also used for rhetorical questions, which are questions that do not intend to elicit an answer. To distinguish the non-manual marking for rhetorical questions from that of yes/no questions, the body is in a neutral position opposed to tilted forward, and the head is tilted in a different way than in yes/no questions.^[61] Rhetorical questions are much more common in ASL than in English. For example, in ASL:

LIKE]^NEGATIVE

[WHAT?]^RHETORICAL,

GARLIC.

«I don’t like garlic»

This strategy is commonly used instead of signing the word ‘because’ for clarity or emphasis. For instance:

PASTA

EAT

ENJOY

TRUE

[WHY?]^RHETORICAL,

ITALIAN

«I love to eat pasta because I am Italian»

DP syntaxEdit

Subject pronoun tagsEdit

Information may also be added after the main clause as a kind of ‘afterthought’. In ASL this is commonly seen with subject pronouns. These are accompanied by a nod of the head, and make a statement more emphatic:

boy

fall

«The boy fell down.»

versus

boy

fall

[he]^TAG

«The boy fell down, he did.»

The subject need not be mentioned, as in

versus

fall

[he]^TAG

«He fell down, he did.»

DeixisEdit

In ASL signers set up regions of space (loci) for specific referents (see above); these can then be referred to indexically by pointing at those locations with pronouns and indexical verbs.

PronounsEdit

Personal pronouns in ASL are indexic. That is, they point to their referent, or to a locus representing their referent. When the referent is physically present, pronouns involve simply pointing at the referent, with different handshapes for different pronominal uses: A ‘G’ handshape is a personal pronoun, an extended ‘B’ handshape with an outward palm orientation is a possessive pronoun, and an extended-thumb ‘A’ handshape is a reflexive pronoun; these may be combined with numeral signs to sign ‘you two’, ‘us three’, ‘all of them’, etc.

If the referent is not physically present, the speaker identifies the referent and then points to a location (the locus) in the sign space near their body. This locus can then be pointed at to refer to the referent. Theoretically, any number of loci may be set up, as long as the signer and recipient remember them all, but in practice, no more than eight loci are used.

Meier 1990 demonstrates that only two grammatical persons are distinguished in ASL: First person and non-first person, as in Damin. Both persons come in several numbers as well as with signs such as ‘my’ and ‘by myself’.

Meier provides several arguments for believing that ASL does not formally distinguish second from third person. For example, when pointing to a person that is physically present, a pronoun is equivalent to either ‘you’ or ‘(s)he’ depending on the discourse. There is nothing in the sign itself, nor in the direction of eye gaze or body posture, that can be relied on to make this distinction. That is, the same formal sign can refer to any of several second or third persons, which the indexic nature of the pronoun makes clear. In English, indexic uses also occur, as in ‘I need you to go to the store and you to stay here’, but not so ubiquitously. In contrast, several first-person ASL pronouns, such as the plural possessive (‘our’), look different from their non-first-person equivalents, and a couple of pronouns do not occur in the first person at all, so first and non-first persons are formally distinct.

Personal pronouns have separate forms for singular (‘I’ and ‘you/(s)he’) and plural (‘we’ and ‘you/they’). These have possessive counterparts: ‘my’, ‘our’, ‘your/his/her’, ‘your/their’. In addition, there are pronoun forms which incorporate numerals from two to five (‘the three of us’, ‘the four of you/them’, etc.), though the dual pronouns are slightly idiosyncratic in form (i.e., they have a K rather than 2 handshape, and the wrist nods rather than circles). These numeral-incorporated pronouns have no possessive equivalents.

Also among the personal pronouns are the ‘self’ forms (‘by myself’, ‘by your/themselves’, etc.). These only occur in the singular and plural (there is no numeral incorporation), and are only found as subjects. They have derived emphatic and ‘characterizing’ forms, with modifications used for derivation rather like those for verbal aspect. The ‘characterizing’ pronoun is used when describing someone who has just been mentioned. It only occurs as a non-first-person singular form.

Finally, there are formal pronouns used for honored guests. These occur as singular and plural in the non-first person, but only as singular in the first person.

ASL is a pro-drop language, which means that pronouns are not used when the referent is obvious from context and is not being emphasized.

Indexical verbsEdit

Within ASL there is a class of indexical (often called ‘directional’) verbs. These include the signs for ‘see’, ‘pay’, ‘give’, ‘show’, ‘invite’, ‘help’, ‘send’, ‘bite’, etc. These verbs include an element of motion that indexes one or more referents, either physically present or set up through the referent locus system. If there are two loci, the first indicates the subject and the second the object, direct or indirect depending on the verb, reflecting the basic word order of ASL. For example, ‘give’ is a bi-indexical verb based on a flattened M/O handshape. For ‘I give you’, the hand moves from myself toward you; for ‘you give me’, it moves from you to me. ‘See’ is indicated with a V handshape. Two loci for a dog and a cat can be set up, with the sign moving between them to indicate ‘the dog sees the cat’ (if it starts at the locus for dog and moves toward the locus for cat) or ‘the cat sees the dog’ (with the motion in the opposite direction), or the V hand can circulate between both loci and myself to mean ‘we (the dog, the cat, and myself) see each other’. The verb ‘to be in pain’ (index fingers pointed at each other and alternately approaching and separating) is signed at the location of the pain (head for headache, cheek for toothache, abdomen for stomachache, etc.). This is normally done in relation to the signer’s own body, regardless of the person feeling the pain, but may take also use the locus system, especially for body parts which are not normally part of the sign space, such as the leg. There are also spatial verbs such as put-up and put-below, which allow signers to specify where things are or how they moved them around.

ConjunctionsEdit

There is no separate sign in ASL for the conjunction and. Instead, multiple sentences or phrases are combined with a short pause between. Often, lists are specified with a listing and ordering technique, a simple version of which is to show the length of the list first with the nondominant hand, then to describe each element after pointing to the nondominant finger that represents it.

English: I have three cats and they are named Billy, Bob, and Buddy.

ASL: CAT I HAVE THREE-LIST. NAME, FIRST-OF-THREE-LIST B-I-L-L-Y, SECOND-OF-THREE-LIST B-O-B, THIRD-OF-THREE-LIST B-U-D-D-Y.

There is a manual sign for the conjunction or, but the concept is usually signed nonmanually with a slight shoulder twist.

English: I’ll leave at 5 or 6 o’clock.

ASL: I LEAVE TIME 5 [shoulder shift] TIME 6.

The manual sign for the conjunction but is similar to the sign for different. It is more likely to be used in Pidgin Signed English than in ASL. Instead, shoulder shifts can be used, similar to «or» with appropriate facial expression.

English: I like to swim, but I don’t like to run.

ASL/PSE: SWIM I LIKE, BUT RUN I LIKE-NOT

ASL: SWIM I LIKE, [shoulder shift] RUN I LIKE-NOT

NotesEdit

^ ^a ^b ^c Bahan (1996:20)
^ ^a ^b Bahan (1996:21)
^ ^a ^b Bahan (1996:21–22)
^ ^a ^b ^c Bahan (1996:22–23)
^ ^a ^b ^c Bahan (1996:23)
^ ^a ^b ^c Bahan (1996:24)
^ ^a ^b ^c Bahan (1996:25)
^ Bahan (1996:50)
^ Bahan (1996:50–51)
^ Aronoff, M., Meir, I., & Sandler, W. (2005). The paradox of sign language morphology. Language, 81(2), 301.
^ Supalla, T. R. (1982). Structure and acquisition of verbs of motion and location in American Sign Language (Doctoral dissertation, ProQuest Information & Learning).
^ Supalla, T. (1986). The classifier system in American sign language. Noun classes and categorization, 181–214.
^ Morford, Jill; MacFarlane, James (2003). «Frequency Characteristics of American Sign Language». Sign Language Studies. 3 (2): 213. doi:10.1353/sls.2003.0003. S2CID 6031673.
^ Supalla, Samuel J. (1990). «The Arbitrary Name Sign System in American Sign Language». Sign Language Studies. 1067 (1): 99–126. doi:10.1353/sls.1990.0006. ISSN 1533-6263. S2CID 144191789.
^ «Types and trends of name signs in the Swedish Sign Language community» (PDF).
^ Samuel J. Supalla (1992) The Book of Name Signs: Naming in American Sign Language.
^ The J hand shape is articulated with a brush of the pinkie finger against the sign location. It cannot occur in neutral space. There is no provision for Z: that is, there are no Z-initial arbitrary name signs.
^ Contrastive locations are limited to the temple, forehead, side of chin, chin, shoulder, chest, outside of elbow, inside of elbow, palm of a vertical flat hand, back of a horizontal back hand. Some name signs are distinguished by orientation. For example, an I hand shape may make contact with either the tip of the pinkie finger or the side of the thumb; the M hand shape with either the tips of the three fingers or the side of the index finger, etc.
^ The two locations are usually close by, such as the hand moving across the chin or down the chest, but may occasionally be further apart, as from the shoulder to the back of the hand.
^ There are occasional exceptions to this constraint. For example, I. King Jordan’s name sign is homophonous with «king» (K hand moving from the shoulder to the hip).
^ ^a ^b Bahan (1996:30)
^ Pichler, Deborah Chen (2001). Word order variation and acquisition in American Sign Language. pp. 14–15.
^ Bahan (1996:31)
^ Neidle, Carol (2002). «Language across modalities». Linguistic Variation Yearbook. 2 (1): 71–98. doi:10.1075/livy.2.05nei.
^ Aarons, DebraAspects of the syntax of American Sign Language (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 55.
^ Pichler, Deborah Chen (2001). Word order variation and acquisition in American Sign Language. p. 23.
^ ^a ^b Bahan (1996:33)
^ Bahan (1996:33–34)
^ Bahan (1996:27)
^ Bahan (1996:34–37)
^ Pichler, Deborah Chen (2001). Word order variation and acquisition in American Sign Language. p. 15.
^ ^a ^b Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 70.
^ ^a ^b Bahan (1996:41–42)
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. pp. 151–153.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 155.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. pp. 156–157.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 157.
^ ^a ^b Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 160.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. pp. 163–165.
^ Pichler, Deborah Chen (2001). Word order variation and acquisition in American Sign Language. pp. 28–29.
^ ^a ^b Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 162.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the Syntax of American Sign Language. p. 165.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. pp. 177–181.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. pp. 67–69.
^ «Non-manual signals in sign language». www.handspeak.com. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
^ Petronio, Karen; Diane Lillo-Martin (1997). «Wh-Movement and the Position of Spec-CP: Evidence from American Sign Language» (PDF). Linguistic Society of America. 73 (1): 18–57. doi:10.2307/416592. JSTOR 416592.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 69.
^ Joseph Christopher Hill; Diane C. Lillo-Martin; Sandra K. Wood (2019). Sign languages: structures and contexts. London. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-429-02087-2. OCLC 1078875378.
^ Josep Quer; Roland Pfau; Annika Herrmann (2021). The Routledge handbook of theoretical and experimental sign language research. Abingdon, Oxon. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-317-62427-1. OCLC 1182020388.
^ Neidle, Carol (2002). «Language across modalities: ASL focus and question constructions». Linguistic Variation Yearbook. 2 (1): 71–98. doi:10.1075/livy.2.05nei.
^ ^a ^b Petronio, Karen; Lillo-Martin, Diane (1997). «WH-Movement and the Position of Spec-CP: Evidence from American Sign Language». Language. 73 (1): 18–57. doi:10.2307/416592. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 416592.
^ Petronio, Karen; Lillo-Martin, Diane (March 1997). «WH-Movement and the Position of Spec-CP: Evidence from American Sign Language». Language. 73 (1): 21. doi:10.2307/416592. JSTOR 416592.
^ Josep Quer; Roland Pfau; Annika Herrmann (2021). The Routledge handbook of theoretical and experimental sign language research. Abingdon, Oxon. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-317-62427-1. OCLC 1182020388.
^ Petronio, Karen; Lillo-Martin, Diane (March 1997). «WH-Movement and the Position of Spec-CP: Evidence from American Sign Language». Language. 73 (1): 22. doi:10.2307/416592. JSTOR 416592.
^ Petronio, Karen; Lillo-Martin, Diane (March 1997). «WH-Movement and the Position of Spec-CP: Evidence from American Sign Language». Language. 73 (1): 18. doi:10.2307/416592. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 416592.
^ Neidle, Carol; MacLaughlin, Dawn; Lee, Robert G.; Bahan, Benjamin; Kegl, Judy (1998). «The Rightward Analysis of wh-Movement in ASL: A Reply to Petronio and Lillo-Martin». Language. 74 (4): 823–825. doi:10.2307/417004. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 417004.
^ Baker, Anne; et al. (2016). The Linguistics of Sign Languages: An Introduction. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 130. ISBN 9789027212306.
^ Baker, Anne (July 8, 2016). The linguistics of sign languages : an introduction. Amsterdam. p. 131. ISBN 978-90-272-6734-4. OCLC 936433607.
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 92.
^ Hill, Joseph C.; Lillo-Martin, Diane C.; Wood, Sandra K. (2018), «Syntax», Sign Languages, New York: Routledge, pp. 55–81, doi:10.4324/9780429020872-4, ISBN 978-0-429-02087-2, S2CID 239556102, retrieved April 18, 2022
^ Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language. p. 68.

ReferencesEdit

Aarons, Debra (1994). Aspects of the syntax of American Sign Language (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Boston University, Boston, MA.
Bahan, Benjamin (1996). Non-Manual Realization of Agreement in American Sign Language (PDF). Boston University. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
Klima, Edward & Bellugi, Ursula (1979). The Signs of Language. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-80795-2.
Liddell, Scott K. (2003). Grammar, Gesture, and Meaning in American Sign Language. Cambridge University Press.
Neidle, Carol (2002). Language across Modalities: ASL focus and question constructions. Linguistic Variation Yearbook, 2(1), 71–98.
Petronio, Karen, & Lillo-Martin, Diane (1997). WH-Movement and the Position of Spec-CP: Evidence from American Sign Language. Language, 73(1), 18–57.
Pichler, Debora Chen (2001). Word order variation and acquisition in American Sign Language (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Connecticut.
Stokoe, William C. (1976). Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles. Linstok Press. ISBN 0-932130-01-1.
Stokoe, William C. (1960). Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo.

History and development of sign language

On the whole, deaf sign languages are independent of oral languages and follow their own paths of development, even in situations where there may be a common spoken language. Because they developed on their own, British Sign Language and American Sign Language are quite different and mutually unintelligible, even though the hearing people of Britain and America share the same oral language. American Sign Language does have some similarities to French Sign Language, due to its early influences. When people using different signed languages meet, however, communication can be easier than when people of different spoken languages meet. This is not because sign languages are universal, but because deaf people may be more patient when communicating, and are comfortable including gesture and mime.^[1]

Generally, each spoken language has a sign language counterpart because each linguistic population contains deaf members who generated a sign language. Geographical or cultural forces will isolate populations and lead to the generation of different and distinct spoken languages; the same forces operate on signed languages, therefore they tend to maintain their identities through time in roughly the same areas of influence as the local spoken languages. This occurs even though sign languages have little or no relation to the spoken languages of the lands in which they arise. There are notable exceptions to this pattern, however, as some geographic regions sharing a spoken language have multiple, unrelated signed languages. Variations within a «national» sign language can usually be correlated to the geographic location of (residential) schools for the deaf.

Juan Pablo Bonet, Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos (Madrid, 1620).

The written history of sign language began in the seventeenth century in Spain. In 1620, Juan Pablo Bonet published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos (Reduction of letters and art for teaching dumb people to speak) in Madrid. It is considered the first modern treatise of phonetics and speech therapy, setting out a method of oral education for the deaf people by means of the use of manual signs in the form of a manual alphabet to improve the communication of deaf people.

From the language of signs of Bonet, Charles-Michel de l’Épée published his alphabet in the eighteenth century, which has remained basically unchanged until the present time. In 1755, Abbé de l’Épée founded the first public school for deaf children in Paris. His lessons were based upon his observations of deaf people signing with hands in the streets of Paris. Synthesized with French grammar, it evolved into the French Sign Language.

Laurent Clerc, a graduate and former teacher of the French School, went to the United States with Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet to found the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1817.^[2] Others followed. In 1817, Clerc and Gallaudet founded the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb (now the American School for the Deaf). Gallaudet’s son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, founded the first college for the deaf in 1864 in Washington, DC, which in 1986, became Gallaudet University, the only liberal arts university for the deaf in the world.

Engravings of Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos:^[3]

A.
B, C, D.
E, F, G.
H, I, L.
M, N.
O, P, Q.
R, S, T.
V, X, Y, Z.

2007 Chinese Taipei Olympic Day Run in Taipei City: Deaflympics Taipei 2009 Easy Sign Language Section.

International Sign, formerly known as «Gestuno,» was created in 1973, to enhance communication among members of the deaf community throughout the world. It is an artificially constructed language and though some people are reported to use it fluently, it is more of a pidgin than a fully formed language. International Sign is used mainly at international Deaf events such as the Deaflympics and meetings of the World Federation of the Deaf.^[4]

Linguistics of sign

In linguistic terms, sign languages are rich and complex, despite the common misconception that they are not «real languages.» William Stokoe started groundbreaking research into sign language in the 1960s. Together with Carl Cronenberg and Dorothy Casterline, he wrote the first sign language dictionary, A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles.^[5] It was during this time he first began to refer to sign language not just as sign language or manual communication, but as «American Sign Language,» or ASL. This ground-breaking dictionary listed signs and explained their meanings and usage, and gave a linguistic analysis of the parts of each sign. Since then, linguists have studied many sign languages and found them to have every linguistic component required to be classified as true languages.

Did you know?

Sign languages are complex and contain every linguistic component required to be classified as true languages

Sign languages are not merely pantomime, but are made of largely arbitrary signs that have no necessary visual relationship to their referent, much as most spoken language is not onomatopoeic. Nor are they a visual renditions of an oral language. They have complex grammars of their own, and can be used to discuss any topic, from the simple and concrete to the philosophical and abstract. For example, in terms of syntax, ASL shares more with spoken Japanese than it does with English.^[6]

The American manual alphabet in photographs

Sign languages, like oral languages, organize elementary, meaningless units (phonemes; once called cheremes in the case of sign languages) into meaningful semantic units. The elements of a sign are Hand shape (or Handform), Orientation (or Palm Orientation), Location (or Place of Articulation), Movement, and Non-manual markers (or Facial Expression), summarized in the acronym HOLME. Signs, therefore, are not an alphabet but rather represent words or other meaningful concepts.

In addition to such signs, most sign languages also have a manual alphabet. This is used mostly for proper names and technical or specialized vocabulary. The use of fingerspelling was once taken as evidence that sign languages are simplified versions of oral languages, but it is merely one tool in complex and vibrant languages. Fingerspelling can sometimes be a source of new signs, which are called lexicalized signs.

Common linguistic features of deaf sign languages are extensive use of classifiers, a high degree of inflection, and a topic-comment syntax. Many unique linguistic features emerge from sign languages’ ability to produce meaning in different parts of the visual field simultaneously. For example, the recipient of a signed message can read meanings carried by the hands, the facial expression, and the body posture at the same time. This is in contrast to oral languages, where the sounds that comprise words are mostly sequential (tone being an exception).

Spatial grammar and simultaneity

Sign languages are able to capitalize on the unique features of the visual medium. Oral language is linear and only one sound can be made or received at a time. Sign language, instead, is visual; hence, a whole scene can be taken in at once. Information can be loaded into several channels and expressed simultaneously.

As an illustration, in English one could utter the phrase, «I drove here.» To add information about the drive, one would have to make a longer phrase or even add a second, such as, «I drove here along a winding road,» or «I drove here. It was a nice drive.» However, in American Sign Language, information about the shape of the road or the pleasing nature of the drive can be conveyed simultaneously with the verb «drive» by inflecting the motion of the hand, or by taking advantage of non-manual signals such as body posture and facial expression, at the same time that the verb «drive» is being signed. Therefore, in English the phrase «I drove here and it was very pleasant» is longer than «I drove here,» in American Sign Language the two may be the same length.

Written forms of sign languages

Sign languages are not often written, and documented written systems were not created until after the 1960s. Most deaf signers read and write the oral language of their country. However, there have been several attempts at developing scripts for sign language. These have included both «phonetic» systems, such as Hamburg Sign Language Notation System, or HamNoSys,^[7] and SignWriting, which can be used for any sign language, as well as «phonemic» systems such as the one used by William Stokoe in his 1965 Dictionary of American Sign Language, which are designed for a specific language.

The phonemic systems of oral languages are primarily sequential: That is, the majority of phonemes are produced in a sequence one after another, although many languages also have non-sequential aspects such as tone. As a consequence, traditional phonemic writing systems are also sequential, with at best diacritics for non-sequential aspects such as stress and tone. Sign languages have a higher non-sequential component, with many «phonemes» produced simultaneously. For example, signs may involve fingers, hands, and face moving simultaneously, or the two hands moving in different directions. Traditional writing systems are not designed to deal with this level of complexity.

The Stokoe notation is sequential, with a conventionalized order of a symbol for the location of the sign, then one for the hand shape, and finally one (or more) for the movement. The orientation of the hand is indicated with an optional diacritic before the hand shape. When two movements occur simultaneously, they are written one atop the other; when sequential, they are written one after the other. Stokoe used letters of the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals to indicate the handshapes used in fingerspelling, such as «A» for a closed fist, «B» for a flat hand, and «5» for a spread hand; but non-alphabetic symbols for location and movement, such as «[]» for the trunk of the body, «×» for contact, and «^» for an upward movement.

SignWriting, developed in 1974 by Valerie Sutton, is highly featural and visually iconic, both in the shapes of the characters—which are abstract pictures of the hands, face, and body—and in their spatial arrangement on the page, which does not follow a sequential order like the letters that make up written English words. Being pictographic, it is able to represent simultaneous elements in a single sign. Neither the Stokoe nor HamNoSys scripts were designed to represent facial expressions or non-manual movements, both of which SignWriting accommodates easily.

Use of signs in hearing communities

While not full languages, many elaborate systems of manual communication have developed in situations where speech is not practical or permitted, such as cloistered religious communities, scuba diving, television recording studios, loud workplaces, stock exchanges, in baseball, while hunting (by groups such as the Kalahari bushmen), or in the game Charades. In Rugby Union, the referee uses a limited but defined set of signs to communicate his/her decisions to the spectators.

On occasion, where there are enough deaf people in the area, a deaf sign language has been taken up by an entire local community. Famous examples of this include Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language in the U.S., Kata Kolok in a village in Bali, Adamorobe Sign Language in Ghana, and Yucatec Maya sign language in Mexico. In such communities, deaf people are not socially disadvantaged.

Many Australian Aboriginal sign languages arose in a context of extensive speech taboos, such as during mourning and initiation rites. They are or were especially highly developed among the Warlpiri, Warumungu, Dieri, Kaytetye, Arrernte, Warlmanpa, and are based on their respective spoken languages.

Sign language has also been used to facilitate communication among peoples of mutually intelligible languages. In the case of Chinese and Japanese, where the same body of written characters is used but with different pronunciation, communication is possible through watching the «speaker» trace the mutually understood characters on the palm of their hand.

A pidgin sign language arose among tribes of American Indians in the Great Plains region of North America. Although the languages of the Plains Indians were unrelated, their way of life and environment had many common features. They were able to find common symbols which were then used to communicate even complex narratives among different tribes. For example, the gesture of brushing long hair down the neck and shoulders signified a woman, two fingers astride the other index finger represented a person on horseback, a circle drawn against the sky meant the moon, and so forth. Unlike other sign languages developed by hearing people, it shares the spatial grammar of deaf sign languages.

Home sign

Sign systems are sometimes developed within a single family. For instance, when hearing parents with no sign language skills have a deaf child, an informal system of signs will naturally develop, unless repressed by the parents. The term for these mini-languages is home sign (sometimes homesign or kitchen sign).

Home sign arises due to the absence of any other way to communicate. Within the span of a single lifetime and without the support or feedback of a community, the child is forced to invent signals to facilitate the meeting of his or her communication needs. Although this kind of system is grossly inadequate for the intellectual development of a child and does not meet the standards linguists use to describe a complete language, it is a common occurrence.

Benefits

For deaf and hard of hearing students, there have been long standing debates regarding the teaching and use of sign language versus oral methods of communication and lip reading. Proficiency in sign language gives deaf children a sense of cultural identity, which enables them to bond with other deaf individuals. This can lead to greater self-esteem and curiosity about the world, both of which enrich the student academically and socially. Certainly, the development of sign language showed that deaf-mute children were educable, opening educational opportunities at the same level as those who hear.

Notes

↑ David Bar-Tzur, International Gesture:Principles and Gestures, July 13, 2002. Retrieved September 20, 2022.
↑ Loida Canlas, Laurent Clerc: Apostle to the Deaf People of the New World Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education Center, Gallaudet University. Retrieved September 20, 2022.
↑ Juan Pablo Bonet, Reducción de las Letras y Arte para Enseñar a Hablar a los Mudos (Editorial Cepe, 1992, ISBN 978-8478690718).
↑ Jolanta Lapiak, Gestuno (a.k.a International Sign Language) HandSpeak. Retrieved September 20, 2022.
↑ William C. Stokoe, Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles (Linstok Press, 1976, ISBN 978-0932130013).
↑ Karen Nakamura, About Japanese Sign Language Deaf Resource Library. Retrieved September 20, 2022.
↑ HamNoSys DGS Corpus. Retrieved September 20, 2022.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Aronoff, Mark, and Janie Rees-Miller. The Handbook of Linguistics. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2020. ISBN 978-1119302070
Bonet, Juan Pablo. Reducción de las Letras y Arte para Enseñar a Hablar a los Mudos. Editorial Cepe, 1992. ISBN 978-8478690718
Emmorey, Karen, Harlan L. Lane, Ursula Bellugi, and Edward S. Klima. The Signs of Language Revisited: An Anthology to Honor Ursula Bellugi and Edward Klima. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000. ISBN 978-0585356419
Groce, Nora Ellen. Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha’s Vineyard. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985. ISBN 978-0674270404
Kendon, Adam. Sign languages of Aboriginal Australia Cultural, Semiotic, and Communicative Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0521360080
Klima, Edward S., and Ursula Bellugi. The Signs of Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0674807952
Lane, Harlan L. The Deaf Experience Classics in Language and Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0674194601
Lane, Harlan L. When the Mind Hears: A History of the Deaf. New York: Random House, 1984. ISBN 0394508785
Lucas, Ceil. Multicultural Aspects of Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities: Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities, vol. 2. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-1563680465
Padden, Carol, and Tom Humphries. Deaf in America: Voices from a Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0674194236
Poizner, Howard. What the Hands Reveal about the Brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0262161053
Sacks, Oliver W. Seeing Voices: A Journey into the Land of the Deaf. Vintage, 2000. ISBN 978-0375704079
Stiles, Joan, Mark Kritchevsky, and Ursula Bellugi. Spatial Cognition: Brain Bases and Development. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1988. ISBN 978-0805800463
Stokoe, William C. Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles. Linstok Press, 1976. ISBN 978-0932130013
Stokoe, William C. Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf. Linstok Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0932130037
Tomkins, William. Indian Sign Language. Dover Publications, 1969. ISBN 978-0486220291

External links

All links retrieved January 29, 2023.

ABC Slider Learn ASL fingerspelling
ASL Browser Video dictionary of ASL signs
32 Uses and Benefits of American Sign Language (ASL) for Silent Communications
Why Is It Important to Learn American Sign Language (ASL)?
Top 26 Resources for Learning Sign Language

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History of «Sign language»

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Источник

Classification[edit]

History[edit]

Population[edit]

Geographic distribution[edit]

Regional variation[edit]

Sign production[edit]

Sign variants[edit]

History and implications[edit]

Varieties[edit]

Stigma[edit]

Writing systems[edit]

Phonology[edit]

Grammar[edit]

Morphology[edit]

Fingerspelling[edit]

Syntax[edit]

Iconicity[edit]

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Test Your American Sign Language By Taking A Free ASL Signs Quiz

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Why take our Sign Language Signs Quiz?

How it works

What Is American Sign Language (ASL)?

Is There A Universal Sign Language?

5 Common Misconceptions About ASL

Misconception #1: ASL Is “English On The Hands”

Misconception #2: ASL Is Shorthand

Misconception #3: ASL Is Most Like British Sign Language

Misconception #4: ASL Is Finger Spelling

How Is Learning ASL Similar To Learning English?

Both ASL And English Activate The Same Area Of The Brain

Both Require Building Words To Form Sentences

Visual Language vs. Auditory Language

ASL Requires Gestural Movements Never Used In Spoken Language

ASL Is More Conceptual Than Spoken Languages

ASL Has A Different Word Order Than English

Tenses Are Represented Differently In ASL

Are You Thinking Of Learning ASL?

MorphologyEdit

DerivationEdit

DegreeEdit

ReduplicationEdit

CompoundsEdit

AffixesEdit

Numeral incorporation and classifiers Edit

FramesEdit

Verbal aspectEdit

Verbal numberEdit

Name signsEdit

Word orderEdit

Default word order is SVOEdit

Edit

Noun-adjective orderEdit

Time-sequenced clause orderingEdit

Tense and aspectEdit

Aspect, topics, and transitivityEdit

CP SyntaxEdit

Topics and main clausesEdit

Relative clausesEdit

Negated clausesEdit

Interrogative clausesEdit

Non-manual grammatical markingsEdit

Wh-questionsEdit

Double-occurring wh-wordsEdit

Lillo-Martin & Fischer’s, and Petronio’s leftward wh-movement analysisEdit

Aarons et al.’s rightward wh-movement analysisEdit

Yes/no questionsEdit

Rhetorical questionsEdit

DP syntaxEdit

Subject pronoun tagsEdit

DeixisEdit

PronounsEdit

Indexical verbsEdit

ConjunctionsEdit

NotesEdit

ReferencesEdit

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees