The arctic tundra in the arctic tundra temperatures егэ

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Russian Weather

Russian weather, particularly for foreigners, seems to be clouded in myths and legends. Russia is a huge country, spanning its __CLIMATE__ zones from polar arctic to subtropical and everything in between.

The capital of Russia, Moscow, has a continental climate, with great __VARY__ in temperature between winter and summer months.

In mid-summer, during July and August, temperatures are pleasantly warm, with __OCCASION__ hot spells.

Winters differ __DRASTIC__ , with only about six hours of daylight in the middle of the season and temperatures recorded at way below freezing point.

The image of Moscow weather is so dominated by the snow that __VISIT__ often underestimate the warmth of Moscow summers.

While the summer attracts the __MAJOR__ of tourists, many Moscow residents would suggest spring and early autumn as the best, time to visit Moscow.

Russian Weather

Russian weather, particularly for foreigners, seems to be clouded in myths and legends. Russia is a huge country, spanning its CLIMATIC zones from polar arctic to subtropical and everything in between.

The capital of Russia, Moscow, has a continental climate, with great VARIATION in temperature between winter and summer months.

In mid-summer, during July and August, temperatures are pleasantly warm, with OCCASIONAL hot spells.

Winters differ DRASTICALLY , with only about six hours of daylight in the middle of the season and temperatures recorded at way below freezing point.

The image of Moscow weather is so dominated by the snow that VISITORS often underestimate the warmth of Moscow summers.

While the summer attracts the MAJORITY of tourists, many Moscow residents would suggest spring and early autumn as the best, time to visit Moscow.

            Around the year 1500, hunting people occupied the entire northern third of North

            America. They lived well from the animals with whom they shared these lands. Hunters

            of sea mammals had colonized the Arctic coasts of Canada and Greenland between

 Line     four and five thousand years before. Land-hunting people had lived throughout much

  (5)      of the northern interior for at least 12,000 years.

                Northern North America is part of a larger circumpolar ecological domain that

            continues across the narrow Bering Strait into Siberia and northern Europe. The overall

            circumpolar environment in the 1500’s was not very different from the environment of

            the present. This vast landmass had a continental climate and was dominated by cold

 (10)      arctic air throughout a long winter and spring season. Summer temperature ranged

            from near freezing to the mid-20’s Celsius, while winter temperature were often as

            low as 40 degrees below zero Celsius.

               Geographers divide the overall circumpolar domain into two zones, the Arctic and,

            below it, the Subarctic. They refer to the landforms of these areas as tundra and taiga,

 (15)      respectively.

               Temperatures in the northern lands were below freezing for eight or nine months of

            the year. Subsurface soil in the Arctic’s tundra remained permanently frozen. Even

            when summer temperatures were above freezing and the top inches of earth became

            saturated with water, the soil below remained frozen into a permafrost, as hard as rock.

 (20)      When water flowed upon the surface of permanently frozen tundra, it made overland

            travel extremely difficult. Summer travel in the boggy lands, or muskeg country, of the

            Subarctic’s taiga was also slow and arduous. Tracking animals was more difficult than

            it was during the winter when the swampy ground was frozen solid and covered with

            snow. In both tundra and taiga, hordes of mosquitoes and biting flies bred in the

 (25)      standing pools of water. Clothing lost its thermal efficiency when it became damp.

            Northern people looked forward to the turn of the season to bring the easier traveling

            conditions associated with cold weather. In the Arctic, they could haul food and

            supplies by dogsled while in the Subarctic, people could travel quickly and efficiently

            by snowshoes and toboggan.

            1. What does the passage mainly discuss?

              (A) The hunting people of North America

              (B) The circumpolar environment of the sixteenth century

              (C) Animals that inhabit the Arctic coast

              (D) The geography of Canada and Greenland

            2. The word “domain”in line 6 is closest in meaning to

              (A) temperature

              (B) period

              (C) region

              (D) process

            3. Which of the following terms is used to describe the landforms

               of the Arctic region?

              (A) Subarctic

              (B) Taiga

              (C) Tundra

              (D) Muskeg

            4. For how many months of the year were temperatures below freezing

            in the circumpolar region?

              (A) 4-5 months                                  (B) 6 months

              (C) 8-9 months              (D) 12 months

            5. The word “saturated”in line 19 is closest in meaning to

              (A) enriched                               (B) dissolved

              (C) removed                               (D) soaked

            6. The word “arduous”in line 22 is closest in meaning to

              (A) humid                                  (B) difficult

              (C) indirect                                (D) unnecessary

            7. The word “standing”in line 25 is closest in meaning to

              (A) not flowing                       (B) very deep

              (C) numerous                             (D) contaminated

            8. All of the following are mentioned as having made travel in the summer

               difficult EXCEPT

              (A) insects                                (B) wet clothing

              (C) swampy lands                    (D) lack of supplies

            9. The subsurface soil in the Arctic’s tundra is most comparable to which

               of the following?

              (A) Cement                                (B) A bog

              (C) A pond                                 (D) Sand

            10. Where in the passage does the author mention a means by which

                people traveled in the northern lands?

              (A) Lines 2-4

              (B) Lines 6-7

              (C) Lines 20-21

              (D) Lines 27-29

The Tundra is located in the northern regions of North America, Europe, Asia, as well as a few regions of Antarctica. The Tundra is the second largest vegetation zone in Canada. It can be divided clearly into three different sections: the High Arctic Tundra, the Low Arctic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra. The latter Alpine Tundra occurs in higher altitudes such as mountains whereas the first two are mainly based in plains and lowlands of some kind.

The Low Arctic Tundra is the transmission point to the north. It is located above Canada’s Boreal forests and is followed by the High Arctic Tundra. The High Arctic Tundra is located farther north and encompasses the Arctic circle as well as most of the western Northwest Territories. Generally though since climate more or less corresponds to vegetation zones, the Tundra is located in Arctic climate areas.

Temperature

The Tundra suffers a very harsh climate. Because of this fact, most of the area remains barren save for a few shrubs and lichens. Its winters last from 8-10 months and the summers are cool and short. Also due to the fact that much of its territory is located within the north pole a lot of the Tundra receives alternating 6 month periods of light and dark. This is also the reason why the Tundra receives cold weather; at its degree of latitude the sun’s rays end up hitting the region obliquely, thus causing less solar heat. Here are the temperatures of the Tundra in general:

Average January temperature: -32.1 degrees Celsius

Average July temperature: +4.1 degrees Celsius

Temperature range: 36.2 degrees Celsius

Average annual temperature: -17 degrees Celsius

Lowest temperature recorded: -52.5 degrees Celsius

Highest temperature recorded: +18.3 degrees Celsius

After seeing these temperatures you can see the reason why barely anyone lives up there and why there is rather little natural vegetation.

Seasons And Moisture Content

The main seasons of the Tundra are summer and winter. The winter will last 8 to 10 months followed by a short and much less cold summer. During the summer some lower areas of the Tundra will defrost at which point most of the flora and fauna will start to creep out of hiding.

The few summer months are used by many animals such as the polar bear, to mate and to prepare for the once again oncoming winter. During the winter months, most everything remains frozen. Many of the animals migrate south for the winter whereas some stay behind or even group together for ritual group suicide (lemmings).

There is little precipitation all year long in the Tundra. The average yearly total is 136 mm, out of which 83.3 mm is snow. This low amount is due to the fact that there is very little evaporation. Since the average temperature is below freezing, it gives little or no time for any of the snow and/or ice to melt. This is the reason that the Tundra is often referred to as a polar desert.

Fertility

The Tundra’s fertility is very low. It has An average growing season of about 60 days (1.5 to 3.5 months) which is not really enough time to allow anything to grow. This is also compounded with the fact that the soil is mainly thin and rocky. But, the main problem is that most of the ground in the Tundra region is permafrost (soil that stays frozen perennially). These 3 aspects of Tundra fertility make the Tundra all but useless for use to grow anything of value.

Forest Floor

The Tundra forest floor really depends on where you are. The further north that you go the less there is anything but snow, ice, and rocks. In the more temperate Tundra where there is plant life, one could find more interesting floors. They contain once again mainly rocky soil which is most likely permafrost. Also, there are many different kinds of mosses and lichens scattered along the ground or on bigger rocks along with possibly some short grasses.

Diversity of Plants

There are not very many species of plant life in the Arctic Tundra, nor is their growth rate giant, or are they abundant but somehow they do survive. Most of the plant life occurs in the lower areas of the Tundra although there are sometimes a few “pockets” of vegetation as you move further north.

There is also a bit more vegetation in the Alpine Tundra. During the few short summer months, the vegetation is able to grow, as opposed to winter where only a few cold-resistant trees can survive the harsh climate and temperatures. The plants reproduce by division and by budding rather than by pollination since there are little time and little other plants.

The Vegetation is often divided into two distinct regions. The change from one to another is quite surprising. They are:

The low arctic Tundra supports a nearly complete plant coverage. There are many low and dwarf shrubs which include willow, birch, and Heath. There is a large number of mosses and lichens in this area.

A high arctic Tundra is a place where it is obviously much more difficult to locate as many plants. Once again mosses and lichens are found but in smaller proportions. Scattered “patches” of willow and sedge occur as well.

Diversity of Animals

Even though the arctic Tundra is not seeping with wildlife, there are more than a few different kinds of animals. The Arctic Tundra wildlife is closely related all around the world, but the variety is limited because of the difficult environment that they have to adjust to.

There are of course the large herbivores, which include such species as the caribou, the musk-ox, and the reindeer. These eat the mosses and dwarf shrubs that they may come across as they cross the arctic. As for predators, they include the wolf and the arctic fox. These play a most crucial role in the Tundra by killing and eating several herbivores.

Without this service, the herbivores would eat all the plants and end up starving to death. There are also many birds that nest in the tundra during the summer months and then migrate south for the winter.

Polar bears as well as brown bears are not uncommon to the arctic Tundra as well. Many other animals include the snowy owl, the lemming, jaegers, the weasel, and the arctic hare to name a few. But perhaps the most annoying of all is the mosquitoes and blackflies which roam around in huge groups.

Symbiotic Relationship

The relationship of the Tundra is a delicate one; any slight faltering could result in massive repercussions. To survive, the herbivores need to eat what little dwarf shrubs and mosses that they can find, and in turn, the meat-eaters need to eat them. Eventually, when the animals die, they become the little earth that will perhaps allow some plant to grow. Without this earth, the plants will not grow and all will die.

Structure Adaptations

Since the Arctic Tundra has such a harsh climate everything has had to adapt or be wiped out. The most common adaptation among animals is rather thick and white fur or feathers. Many animals such as the snowy owl have grown to use this to camouflage themselves to escape predators or as a predator themselves to catch their prey. Among Plants, there are many changes.

Many plants have adapted to contain most of their biomass in their roots so as to protect themselves from the winds. Also, another common plant adaptation has been to develop a more aerodynamic and stronger frame to withstand the winds. Among insects, the mosquitoes and blackflies have evolved into darker black colors so as to capture and save most of the day’s heat.

Other facts

When a vehicle passes in the Tundra area, the tracks cause deep ditches that can last not for days but for years. Also what could happen is that if a piece of the Tundra’s permafrost is melted, it will cave in a large area. The Tundra is very fragile and we must take care not to destroy it for it is very frail.

Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra
Level 2
1
Intermediate
Key words
Fill the gaps in the sentences using these key words from the text.
herder
swamp
impenetrable landslide
sceptical
catastrophic
indigenous
unmistakeable
tundra
permafrost
1. _______________ is a large flat area of land without trees in very cold northern parts of the world.
2. _______________ is ground that stays permanently frozen.
3. A _______________ is a heavy fall of earth and rocks down the side of a mountain or steep slope.
4. A _______________ is someone whose job is to look after a group of animals.
5. If a place is described as _______________, it is impossible to get into or get through it.
6. If something is described as _______________, it is very easy to recognize.
7. If you are _______________ about something that other people think is true, you have doubts about it.
8. A _______________ is an area of land covered by water where trees and plants grow.
9. The _______________ people of a particular place have lived there for a very long time before other people
came to live there.
10. A _______________ situation or event causes a lot of damage or makes a lot of people suffer.
2
Find the information
Look in the text and find this information as quickly as possible.
1. Where is the Yamal peninsula?
2. When do reindeer give birth to their young?
3. What is the normal winter temperature on the Yamal peninsula?
4. Which gases will be released if the permafrost melts?
5. What length of Russian railway track is built on permafrost?
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© Macmillan Publishers Ltd 2009
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6. What is the difference between the thickness of the ice in 2008 and the thickness this year?
Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra
Intermediate
report other curious changes – there are fewer
mosquitoes and a strange increase in gadflies.
6
“It’s an indication of the global warming process,
like the opening of the Arctic waters for shipping
this summer,” says Vladimir Tchouprov,
Greenpeace Russia’s energy unit head. The
melting of Russia’s permafrost could have
catastrophic results for the world, Tchouprov
says, by releasing billions of tonnes of carbon
dioxide and methane that were previously
trapped in frozen soil.
7
Russia – the world’s biggest country by
geographical area – is already warming
one-and-a-half-times faster than other parts of
the world. If global temperatures go up by 4°C,
as many scientists fear, the impact on Russia
would be disastrous. Much of Russia’s northern
region would become impenetrable swamp.
Houses in several Arctic towns are already
beginning to sink into the ground.
8
Many Russians, however, doubt that climate
change exists. Others say that it might bring
benefits to one of the world’s coldest countries,
with oil and gas exploration in the Arctic, and
a longer growing season. Russia’s scientific
community seems sceptical about global
warming and the government doesn’t appear to
regard the issue as a major domestic problem;
public awareness of climate change in Russia is
lower than in any other European country.
9
Western politicians, however, say that it is in
Russia’s interests to take action on climate
change and to seek ambitious targets at
December’s Copenhagen summit. “There is
5,000 miles of railway track built on permafrost.
It could be destroyed as a result of melting,” Ed
Miliband, the UK secretary of state for climate
change, said during a recent visit to Moscow.
Luke Harding
20 October, 2009
1 For 1,000 years the indigenous Nenets people
have migrated along the 450-mile-long Yamal
peninsula in northern Russia. In summer they
wander northwards, taking their reindeer with
them. In winter they return southwards.
4 Herders say that the peninsula’s weather is
increasingly unpredictable – with unseasonal
snowstorms when the reindeer give birth in
May, and milder longer autumns. In winter,
temperatures used to go down to -50°C. Now
they are normally around -30°C, according to
Japtik. “Obviously we prefer -30°C. But the
changes aren’t good for the reindeer and in the
end what is good for the reindeer is good for us,”
he said, setting off on his sledge to round up his
reindeer herd.
5 Here, in one of the most remote parts of the
planet, there are clear signs the environment is
under pressure. Last year the Nenets arrived at
a regular summer camping spot and discovered
that half of their lake had disappeared. The
water had drained away after a landslide. While
landslides can occur naturally, scientists say
there is unmistakable evidence that Yamal’s
ancient permafrost is melting. The Nenets
10 However, even Russians working in the Arctic
do not believe that their country faces a serious
climate-change problem. “It’s rubbish. It’s
invented. People who spend too long sitting at
home have made up climate change,” Alexander
Chikmaryov, who runs a remote weather station
on the Yamal peninsula, said. A small community
of Nenets hunters lives nearby; otherwise there’s
© Macmillan Publishers Ltd 2009
NEWS LESSONS / Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra / Intermediate
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3 “Our reindeer were hungry. There wasn’t enough
food,” Jakov Japtik, a Nenets reindeer herder,
said. “The snow is melting sooner, quicker and
faster than before. In spring it’s difficult for the
reindeer to pull the sledges. They get tired,”
Japtik said.
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2 But this remote region of north-west Siberia
is now being affected by global warming.
Traditionally the Nenets travel across the frozen
River Ob in November and set up their camps
in the southern forests around Nadym. These
days, though, this annual winter migration is
delayed. Last year the Nenets, together with
many thousands of reindeer, had to wait until
late December when the ice was finally thick
enough to cross.
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Climate change in Russia’s Arctic
tundra: ‘Our reindeer go hungry.
There isn’t enough pasture’
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Level 2
Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra
Level 2
Intermediate
nobody for a hundred kilometres. The weather
here is, not surprisingly, bitterly cold; the sea
freezes for nine months of the year.
11 In fact, Chikmaryov’s own data suggests that
global warming is a real problem here too. In
2008 the ice was 164cm thick; this year it is
117cm. Winter temperatures have gone up too
– from lows of -50°C in 1914, when the station
was founded, to -40°C today. Every year large
chunks of the coast fall into the sea. And there
are other unnatural signs. On 15th August a
large polar bear was seen looking for food in the
station’s rubbish bin. “It was 7pm. The bear was
enormous. We set off a flare. It ran off,” said one
of the station’s workers. Polar bear sightings are
becoming increasingly common – with the bears
coming south from their far-northern habitat in
search of food.
12 Back on the tundra Japitik was rounding up his
reindeer. “I’ve lived all of my life in the tundra,”
he said. “The reindeer for us are everything –
food, transport and accommodation. The only
thing I hope is that we will be able to carry on
with this life.”
© Guardian News & Media 2009
First published in The Guardian, 15/11/09
3 Comprehension check
Are these statements true (T) or false (F) according to the text?
1. Winter temperatures in the Yamal peninsula are lower than they used to be.
2. The water in the lake at the Nenets camping spot disappeared as a result of a landslide.
3. If Russia’s permafrost melted, the effects would be very serious for the whole world.
4. Russia is warming up more quickly than other parts of the world.
5. The Russian government sees global warming as a serious domestic problem.
6. Most Russians who work in the Arctic believe there is a serious climate-change problem in Russia.
4 Find the word
Find the following words and phrases in the text.
1. a noun meaning a long piece of land that is mostly surrounded by water but is joined at one end to a larger area of land (para 1)
2. an adjective meaning far away from other cities, towns or people (para 2)
3. a noun meaning a vehicle that you sit on to travel over snow (para 3)
4. a two-word phrasal verb meaning to bring animals together in one place for a particular purpose (para 4)
5. a two-word phrasal verb referring to a liquid and meaning to flow away (para 5)
6. a two-word phrasal verb meaning to invent (para 10)
7. a two-word expression meaning extremely cold (para 10)
8. a noun meaning a bright light or flame that burns brightly and is used as a signal in the dark (para 11)
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Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra
Level 2
Intermediate
5 Verb + noun collocations
Match the verbs in the left-hand column with the nouns and noun phrases in the right-hand column.
1. set up
a. action
2. pull
b. a flare
3. take
c. problems
4. face
d. a camp
5. set off
e. benefits
6. bring
f.
a sledge
6 Word building
Complete the table using adjectives from the text.
noun
adjective
1.
catastrophe
2.
disaster
3.
ambition
4.
geography
5.
season eason
(un)
6.
predictiondiction
(un)
7 Discussion
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NEWS LESSONS / Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra / Intermediate
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Some people say that global warming does not exist. Do you agree with this statement? Why? Why not?