The human activity leads to devastation егэ ответы

Подготовка к заданию ЕГЭ-11 АЯ 40 — «письменное высказывание с элементами рассуждения».

Содержание

Some people say that genetically modified food is hazardous to health 

Some people think that organic food is healthier than conventional food 

Some people think that we should eat at home 

Some people think that clothes help them show who they really are 

Some people say that there should not be any rules about the clothes people can wear in the workplace 

Some people think that tattoos and piercing make them more attractive 

Some people say that school trips are beneficial for students 

Some people think that the best way to travel in a town or in a city is on foot 

Some people say that travelling by plane is very convenient 

Some people say that hitchhiking is the best way of travelling 

Some people think that international travel has a lot of benefits 

Some people say that the best way to travel is by ship 

Some people say that having friends is important for everyone 

Some people think that only those who have much in common can become friends 

Many people think that love makes a person happy 

Some people think that only those who earn a lot of money can be happy 

Some people say that making money with the Internet is reality 

Some people say that having a hobby is important for everyone 

Some people believe that teenagers should not be given too much free time 

Some people think that collecting various things is a waste of time and money 

Some people think that homeschooling is an excellent alternative to traditional education 

Some people think that if you want to get a good education, you should go abroad 

Some people think that the most important thing for a teacher is to make studying enjoyable for students 

Some people think that computers may replace teachers in the future 

Many people think that homework is essential for every student 

Some people think that grades encourage students to learn 

Some people think that creativity is an essential ability which must be taught at school 

Some people say that having jobs can be of great benefit to teenagers 

Some people think that it is more important to get satisfaction from your work than to earn much money 

Some people think that young people should follow in their parents’ footsteps when choosing a profession 

Some people think that it is better to work abroad 

At present, there is no difficulty in finding a good job 

Many people believe that it is important to develop teamwork in the workplace 

Some people think that modern technologies make life more convenient 

Some people say that using mobile telephones must be prohibited in school 

Some people think that the Internet has more drawbacks than advantages 

Some people say that the Internet has improved the effectiveness of education 

Some people believe that there are real risks to dating via the Internet 

Some people prefer writing traditional paper letters to using e-mail 

Some people are worried about computers and robots doing the same things that people can do 

Some people say that the theatre is likely to disappear 

Some people believe that dancing can be of great benefit to children 

Some people think that rap music has a bad influence on teenagers 

Some people think that watching movies is beneficial to everybody 

Some people prefer watching a film version to reading a book 

Some people say that we do not need public libraries any more 

Some people say that weight loss diets can be very harmful 

Some people say that extreme sports are too risky 

Some people dream of becoming professional athletes 

Some people think that surfing is rather risky 

Some people think that physical attractiveness is important for everyone 

Some people prefer to have only one child 

Some people choose to build a family through adoptions 

Some people believe that adult children should not live with their parents 

Some people say that it is wonderful to have a sibling 

Some people say that overpopulation is a major problem for the human race 

Some people continue smoking in spite of all warnings 

Some people say that capital punishment should be allowed 

Some people say that there is nothing better than watching TV 

Some people think that reality TV shows are enjoyable and bring many benefits to the audience and the actors 

Some people say that print media will disappear in the future 

Some people say that shopping is interesting and enjoyable 

Some people say that our lives would be better if we bought fewer goods 

Many people say that it is important to recycle waste 

Some people prefer hybrid cars to traditional cars 

Some people say that modern teenagers are carefree 

Parents have many concerns about their teenagers dating 

Some people believe that animals should not be taken from their natural surroundings and put into zoos 

Some people think that keeping pets is a waste of time and money 

Some people think that virtual pets can replace real pets 

Some people believe that learning foreign languages is a waste of time 

Many people dream of being famous someday 

Some people do not care whether they buy pirated or legal CDs and DVDs 

Some people say that ambitiousness is the key to success and happiness 

Some people say that nonverbal messages improve communication 

(Юнева С. А. Открывая мир с английским языком. Новые 150 эссе для ЕГЭ.)

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Задание В3

Прочитайте утверждения и следующие за ними тексты. Установите соответствие утверждений текстам. Используйте каждую букву только один раз. В задании один текст лишний.

A. Contact professionals before travelling to distant countries.
B. There are companies which are ready to help you to start your travels with the minimum of hassle.
C. Passes to different regions allow you to have unforgettable experience of your journey.
D. Travelling in Europe may differ considerably from exploring America.
E. If you want to go easy on your wallet you’ll find reasonable efficient networks in most countries.
F. Rates are lower if you are not alone on your travels.

1. There will be times when you’re travelling when you’ll need to change your plans. You may fall in love with a place and decide you want to stay there a little bit longer. The hop-on, hop-off bus service is just the thing, allowing you to visit nine countries throughout Europe at your own pace. The budget traveller’s preferred option, bus travel is the cheapest way in which to see the country. Flexible passes give you unlimited travel for anything from four to 60 days.
2. For those truly memorable journeys, trains can’t be beaten, whether you’re heading through golden prairie land or the Rocky Mountains. The Train Explorer Pass offers great value with regional passes available depending on which region you intend to visit.
3. America is the home of the open road. The movie and rock , cliches you’ve seen are not inaccurate, and the highway is often the best way to see the huge cities and National Parks. Petrol is cheap, and conditions are excellent — just watch the speed limits which are considerably lower than in Europe.
4. Immediate confirmation can be offered on a wide variety of 2-5 star hotels throughout the country. Rates are per room and not per person saving you valuable Js when you’re travelling with your friends.
5. Growing economies, unsung beauty and a varied climate have made South America an increasingly popular destination for independent travellers.
6. Wherever you travel, you’re always at risk of illness, especially if you’re bound for more exotic climes. With this in mind, it’s essential you consult your GP or a travel clinic (which are located throughout the country) at least two months before you start your travels. Depending on your destination, inoculations may be necessary, but remember prevention is always better than cure.
7. Depending on how friendly your home country is with the one you intend to visit, you’ll need to satisfy certain visa requirements. This can cost you time, money and several pairs of shoes as you traipse around the embassies, so time is of the essence here. There are a number of visa assistance companies that will take the grief out of this whole process.

Задания A15-A21

Прочитайте рассказ и выполните задания А15-А21. В каждом задании обведите цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному вами варианту ответа.

The eBay Addicts

Katie is sitting at her computer, eyes glued to the screen. It’s 2 am and the eBay auction is about to end. Within minutes the 25-year-old events manager from London will know if she has won another pair of Gucci shoes to add to her collection.
The scene may sound familiar. Indeed, eBay — the Internet auction site — has become a modern phenomenon, with 10 million British users, 135 million worldwide and up to 600,000 joining every month.
The other side-effects of her self-confessed addiction are far more alarming. Katie has spent so much of her substantial J50,000-a-year salary on eBay since discovering it in November that she is already J10,000 in debt.
It is not just her finances which are feeling the strain. Her health is also deteriorating under the stress of owing so much, and she has been to see her GP. What horrifies Katie even more is the fact that she can see her personality changing as a result of her addiction: she admits she is now prepared to lie to cover the extent of her problem.
Natalie, 27, from London, who works for a casting agency, also finds taking part in the eBay auctions and hunting for bargains addictive.
‘I admit that I am an addict and I probably do need professional help,’ she says. ‘Every day I wake up and say that today I am not going on eBay. But I can’t stop myself. It started as my stress-buster from work and now it’s the cause of my stress. The thrill of the auction is like a gambling rush.’
These young women are not isolated cases. David Nott, Addictions Programme Manager, is seeing an increasing number of patients with eBay addiction, which he says is a very real condition.
While shopaholism has been recognized as a problem for years, he believes eBay addiction is different because of the combination of shopping and gambling which makes it so compelling and potentially more addictive.
‘While a lot of people claim that the possibility of picking up a bargain is what attracts them to eBay, the single biggest thing that tends to keep them coming back is not what they buy, but how they buy it,’ he says. ‘The whole thing is geared around anticipation, winning and losing — it’s a very emotive process.’
He says eBay addiction should be treated as seriously as any other.
‘It is potentially life-destroying. While it doesn’t have the immediate health implications, it can lead to disrupted sleep, the same types of adrenaline highs and lows and obviously the overspending and consequent financial problems that this entails.’

A15 Why does the author in the second paragraph say that «the scene may sound familiar»? Because people taking part in the eBay auctions are:

1) a rare case
2) ordinary buyers
3) spread all over the world
4) decreasing in number

A16 People visiting eBay auctions are:

1) gamblers
2) addicts
3) shopaholics
4) lonely people

A17 According to the author what attracts people in eBay auctions?

1) the rush of excitement
2) anticipation, winning and losing
3) the need to by things
4) the possibility to pick up a bargain

A18 EBay addiction is different from shopaholism because:

1) there is no human interaction
2) it is a combination of shopping and gambling
3) it is more addictive
4) you buy things online

A19 David Nott says that the side effects of eBay addiction are:

1) destroyed relationship and stress
2) financial problems
3) deteriorating health and change of personality
4) adrenaline rush, disrupted sleep and financial problems

A20 EBay addiction according to David Nott should be treated seriously because:

1) you get hooked
2) it has immediate health implications
3) bidding is exciting
4) it may destroy your life

A21 Natalie thinks that her addiction:

1) is self-destructing
2) influences her relationship with parents
3) is the cause of her stress
4) is just a hobby

5. À. Ïðî÷èòàéòå è îçàãëàâüòå òåêñò.

Âñå ïðèçíàþò, ÷òî ñåé÷àñ ìèð ñòàëêèâàåòñÿ ñ îãðîìíûì êîëè÷åñòâîì ñåðüåçíûõ ïðîáëåì, ñâÿçàííûõ ñ ýêîëîãèåé. Ñðåäè ýêîëîãè÷åñêèõ ïðîáëåì, óãðîæàþùèõ ÷åëîâå÷åñòâó, ïåðâîå ìåñòî çàíèìàåò, âåðîÿòíî, çàãðÿçíåíèå.

Îäíà èç ôîðì ýòîé ïðîáëåìû – çàãðÿçíåíèå âîçäóõà. Ëþáàÿ ãîðÿùàÿ âåùü ïðîèçâîäèò äûì, ñàæó è ãàçû, êîòîðûå ìîãóò áûòü îïàñíû. Ñæèãàíèå áåíçèíà ïðîèçâîäèò ìåòàë, íàçûâàåìûé ñâèíöîì. Ñâèíåö ÿäîâèò. Âû ìîæåòå åãî âäîõíóòü, ïðèíÿòü âìåñòå ñ ïèùåé è âîäîé, è îí îñòà¸òñÿ â âàøåì îðãàíèçìå, ìåäëåííî åãî îòðàâëÿÿ.

Çàãðÿçíåíèÿ âîçäóõà òàêæå ïðèâîäÿò ê êèñëîòíûì äîæäÿì. Íàøè ýëåêòðîñòàíöèè ñæèãàþò óãîëü èëè íåôòü. Ýòè ïðîöåññû ïðîèçâîäÿò ÿäîâèòûå ãàçû. Âåòåð ãîíèò èõ âûñîêî â íåáî. Òàì îíè ñîåäèíÿþòñÿ ñ âîäîé â âîçäóõå è îáðàçóþò êèñëîòíûé äîæäü, êèñëîòíûé òóìàí è êèñëîòíûé ñíåã, êîòîðûå îïóñêàþòñÿ íà çåìëþ è îòðàâëÿþò ðåêè è îçåðà. Äåðåâüÿ ñòðàäàþò îò êèñëîòíîãî äîæäÿ íå ìåíüøå, ÷åì âîäíûå æèâîòíûå è ðàñòåíèÿ. Ìèëëèîíû äåðåâüåâ â Êàëèôîðíèè è ñåâåðíîé Åâðîïå ïîãèáëè èç-çà êèñëîòíûõ äîæäåé. Êèñëîòà âúåäàåòñÿ â êàìíè, ðàçðóøàÿ çäàíèÿ. Ìíîãèå ñòàðèííûå è êðàñèâåéøèå çäàíèÿ ìèðà ñåé÷àñ â îïàñíîñòè.

Çàãðÿçíåíèÿ âîäû îïàñíî òàê æå, êàê è çàãðÿçíåíèÿ âîçäóõà. Ëþäè ñáðàñûâàþò ñëèøêîì ìíîãî îòõîäîâ â ìîðÿ, îçåðà è ðåêè.  ðåçóëüòàòå îíè íå ìîãóò î÷èñòèòü ñåáÿ ñàìè. Ìîðå âûáðàñûâàåò îòõîäû íà ïëÿæè è ïîáåðåæüÿ, çàãðÿçíÿÿ èõ. Õóäøèé âèä çàãðÿçíåíèé ìîðÿ – íåôòÿíûå ïÿòíà. Íåôòü ñîäåðæèò ÿäîâèòûå õèìè÷åñêèå âåùåñòâà. Åñëè íåôòü ïðîëèâàåòñÿ â ìîðå, êèñëîðîä íå ìîæåò äîéòè äî ðàñòåíèé è æèâîòíûõ ïîä âîäîé, è îíè ïîãèáàþò. Òî æå ïðîèñõîäèò è ñ âîäíûìè ïòèöàìè, êîòîðûå ïîïàäàþò â íåôòÿíûå ïÿòíà.

Ñáðîñû ïðîìûøëåííûõ è áûòîâûõ îòõîäîâ ïðèâîäÿò ê çàãðÿçíåíèÿì ïî÷âû. Íåêîòîðûå èç ýòèõ îòõîäîâ ìîãóò ðàäèîàêòèâíûìè è ïðèâåñòè ê îòðàâëåíèþ ÿäåðíûìè âåùåñòâàìè, îñîáåííî îïàñíûìè äëÿ ëþäåé è æèâîòíûõ. ßäåðíûå ýëåêòðîñòàíöèè ïðîèçâîäÿò ýëåêòðè÷åñòâî è äîëæíû áûòü “ýêîëîãè÷åñêè áåçîïàñíûìè”. Íî åñëè ÷òî-òî ñëó÷èòñÿ ñ òàêîé ñòàíöèåé èëè ÷òî-òî ïîéäåò òàì íåïðàâèëüíî, îíà íà÷èíàåò çàãðÿçíÿòü îãðîìíûå òåððèòîðèè, ïîñëåäñòâèÿ îáû÷íî óæàñíûå. Òàêèå àâàðèè ñëó÷àëèñü â Áðèòàíèè, ÑØÀ, ßïîíèè è ×åðíîáûëå, Óêðàèíå. Èñïîëüçîâàííîå ÿäåðíîå òîïëèâî î÷åíü òîêñè÷íî. Ëþäè äåðæàò åãî ïîä âîäîé èëè çàêàïûâàþò ãëóáîêî â ñïåöèàëüíûõ êîíòåéíåðàõ. Íî ìû äîëæíû ïîìíèòü, ÷òî ðàäèîàêòèâíûå îòõîäû îñòàþòñÿ ðàäèîàêòèâíûìè è îïàñíûìè ìíîãèå òûñÿ÷åëåòèÿ.

Äðóãîé ïðîáëåìîé, êîòîðàÿ øèðîêî îáñóæäàåòñÿ, ÿâëÿåòñÿ ãëîáàëüíîå ïîòåïëåíèå èëè ïàðíèêîâûé ýôôåêò. Ïàðû è ñàæà â àòìîñôåðå ñîçäàþò ÷òî-òî âðîäå “ïàðíèêà”, êîòîðûé íå âûïóñêàåò òåïëî. Îïàñíîñòü â òîì, ÷òî òåìïåðàòóðà ìîæåò ïîäíÿòüñÿ íà íåñêîëüêî ãðàäóñîâ â áëèæàéøåì áóäóùåì. Êëèìàòè÷åñêèå èçìåíåíèÿ ìîãóò ñåðüåçíî íàâðåäèòü ïëàíåòå è åå íàñåëåíèþ.

 ñïèñîê ïðîáëåì îêðóæàþùåé ñðåäû âêëþ÷åíû òàêæå ðîñò íàñåëåíèÿ, íåäîñòàòîê åäû è ñâåæåé âîäû â íåêîòîðûõ ÷àñòÿõ ìèðà, ðàçðóøåíèå ïðèðîäû è ìíîãèå äðóãèå. È ìíîãèå èç íèõ ïðîèçîøëè èç-çà ëþäåé. Ïðèøëî âðåìÿ íàó÷èòüñÿ æèòü â ãàðìîíèè ñ ïðèðîäîé è ñïàñòè ïëàíåòó.

Â. Âûáåðèòå ïðàâèëüíûå îòâåòû íà ýòè âîïðîñû.

1) ×òî î÷åâèäíî î çàãðÿçíåíèÿõ?

a) Çàãðÿçíåíèå áîëåå îïàñíî äëÿ ëþäåé, ÷åì äëÿ äðóãèõ æèâûõ îðãàíèçìîâ.

b) Çàãðÿçíåíèå âîçäóõà îïàñåíèå çàãðÿçíåíèÿ âîäû.

c) Çàãðÿçíåíèÿ áîëüøå íå îïàñíåå äðóãèõ ýêîëîãè÷åñêèõ ïðîáëåì.

d) Ìíîãèå ýêîëîãè÷åñêèå ïðîáëåìû ìîãóò áûòü ìåíåå âàæíûìè, ÷åì çàãðÿçíåíèÿ.

2) Ïî÷åìó çàãðÿçíåíèå âîçäóõà îïàñíî?

a) Ïîòîìó ÷òî äåðåâüÿ ñòðàäàþò îò óãëÿ è íåôòè.

b) Ïîòîìó ÷òî âåòåð ãîíèò ïàðû â íåáî.

c) Ïîòîìó, ïîìèìî ïðî÷åãî, îíî ïðèâîäèò ê êèñëîòíûì äîæäÿì.

d) Ïîòîìó ÷òî ýëåêòðîñòàíöèè ñæèãàþò óãîëü.

3) Êàê êèñëîòíûé äîæäü, ñíåã, òóìàí âëèÿþò íà æèâûå îðãàíèçìû?

a) Îíè ìîãóò óíè÷òîæèòü è óáèòü èõ.

b) Îíè äåëàþò èõ ìåíåå ïðèâëåêàòåëüíûìè.

c) Îíè ðàçðóøàþò çäàíèÿ èç êàìíÿ.

d) Îíè ðàçðóøàþò èñòîðè÷åñêèå íàñëåäèÿ ñòðàí.

4) Ïî÷åìó ìîðÿ, îçåðà è ðåêè íå ìîãóò ñàìîî÷èùàòüñÿ?

a) Ïîòîìó ÷òî òÿæåëî èçáàâèòüñÿ îò íåôòÿíûõ ïÿòåí.

b) Ïîòîìó ÷òî îòõîäû ïðåâûøàþò òî êîëè÷åñòâî, êîòîðîå îíè ñïîñîáíû î÷èñòèòü.

c) Ïîòîìó ÷òî â ïðîìûøëåííûõ è áûòîâûõ îòõîäàõ ÿäîâèòûå õèìè÷åñêèå âåùåñòâà.

d) Ïîòîìó ÷òî âîçäóõ íå ñïîñîáåí ïðîíèêíóòü ïîä âîäó.

5) ×òî èç íèæåïåðå÷èñëåííîãî íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ èñòî÷íèêîì àòîìíîãî çàãðÿçíåíèÿ?

a) èñïîëüçîâàííîå ÿäåðíîå òîïëèâî

b) àòîìíûå ýëåêòðîñòàíöèè

c) ïðîìûøëåííûå è áûòîâûå îòõîäû

d) ýëåêòðîñòàíöèè

6) Ê ÷åìó ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ãëîáàëüíîå ïîòåïëåíèå?

a) Îíî ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ê çàãðÿçíåíèþ âîçäóõà.

b) Îíî ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ê çàãðÿçíåíèþ âîäû.

c) Îíî ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ê êëèìàòè÷åñêèì èçìåíåíèÿì.

d) Îíî ìîæåò ïðîèçâåñòè ïàðíèêîâûé ýôôåêò.

7) ×òî ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðè÷èíîé ñåðüåçíûõ ýêîëîãè÷åñêèõ ïðîáëåì?

a) Çàãðÿçíåíèÿ âîçäóõà, âîäû è ïî÷âû.

b) Íåäîñòàòîê åäû è ñâåæåé âîäû.

c) Îïðåäåëåííûå âèäû äåÿòåëüíîñòè ëþäåé.

d) Ðàñòóùåå íàñåëåíèå íà Çåìëå.

Ðåøåíèå #

1d, 2c, 3a, 4b, 5d, 6c, 7c.

Ïðèâåäåì âûäåðæêó èç çàäàíèÿ èç ó÷åáíèêà Áàðàíîâà, Àôàíàñüåâà, Ìèõååâà 10 êëàññ, Äðîôà:

5 A. Read the text and give it a title.

Everybody admits that nowadays the world faces a number of serious problems connected with the environment. Among the environmental problems threatening living things and humans the first place is probably taken by pollution.

One of its forms is air pollution. All burning produces smoke, soot and gases which may be harmful. Burning petrol also produces metal called lead. Lead is poisonous. You can breathe it in, you can take it in through food and water and it stays inside slowly poisoning you.

Air pollution also results in acid rains. Our power stations burn coal or oil. Their burning produces poisonous gases. The wind carries them high into the sky. There they come together with water in the air and make acid rain, acid fog and acid snow, which fall onto the ground and poison rivers and lakes. Trees suffer from acid rain no less than water plants and animals. Millions of trees have died in Canada and northern Europe because of acid rain. The acid eats into the stone destroying buildings. Many of the world’s oldest and most beautiful buildings are in danger now.

Water pollution is as dangerous as air pollution. People dump too much waste into seas, lakes and rivers. As a result they cannot clean themselves. The sea washes the waste onto the beaches and coasts and pollutes them. The worst kind of sea pollution is an oil spill. Oil contains poisonous chemicals. If oil is spilt at sea, air can’t get to the plants and animals under the water and they die. So do waterbirds which get into oil spills.

Dumping industrial and domestic waste leads to soil pollution. Some of this waste may be radioactive and cause nuclear pollution, extremely dangerous to people and animals. Nuclear power stations producing electricity are supposed to be “environmentally friendly”. But if something happens to such a station or something goes wrong there, it begins to pollute vast areas and the result is usually terrible. Such accidents happened in Britain, the USA, Japan and Chernobyl, Ukraine. Used nuclear fuel is very toxic. People tend to keep it under water or bury it deep under the ground in special containers. But we should remember that radioactive waste remains radioactive and dangerous for thousands of years.

One more problem that is being widely discussed is global warming, or greenhouse effect. The gases and soot in the atmosphere make a kind of “screen” which doesn’t allow heat get back into space. There is a danger that the temperature can rise by some degrees in the near future. Climatic changes may do a lot of harm to our planet and those who populate it.

The list of environmental problems also includes growth of population, shortage of food and fresh water in some parts of the world, destruction of wildlife and many others. A lot of them are man-made. Time has come for us to learn to live in harmony with nature and save our planet.

B. Choose the appropriate answers to these questions.

1) What is evident about pollution?

a) Pollution is more dangerous for people than other living things.

b) Air pollution is more poisonous than water pollution.

c) Pollution is no more dangerous than other environmental problems.

d) Numerous environmental problems may be less serious than pollution.

2) Why is air pollution dangerous?

a) Because trees suffer from coal and oil.

b) Because winds carry gases into the sky.

c) Because among other things it leads to acid rains.

d) Because power stations burn coal.

3) How do acid rain, acid fog and acid snow influence living things?

a) They can destroy and kill them.

b) They make living things less attractive.

c) They destroy buildings made of stone.

d) They destroy countries’ historic heritage.

4) Why can’t seas, lakes and rivers clean themselves?

a) Because it’s too hard to destroy oil spills.

b) Because waste is more than they can manage to clean.

c) Because there are poisonous chemicals in domestic and industrial waste.

d) Because air is not able to get under the water.

5) Which of the following is not a source of nuclear pollution?

a) Used nuclear fuel.

b) Nuclear power stations.

c) Industrial and domestic waste.

d) Power stations.

6) What can global warming lead to?

a) It can lead to air pollution.

b) It can lead to water pollution.

c) It can result in climatic changes.

d) It can produce the green house effect.

7) What causes serious environmental problems?

a) Air, water and soil pollution.

b) Shortage of food and fresh water.

c) Certain types of human activity.

d) The growing population of the Earth.

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1. The invention of a highlighter

2. For drawing angles

3. Three-ring binder

4. Shaped like breadbaskets

5. An ancient writing tool

6. Important properties

7. Regional differences

8. For carrying textbooks

A. An ancient Roman writing instrument, the stylus, gave rise to the modem pencil. Some early styluses were made of lead. When graphite was documented in Borrowdale, England, in 1564, the mineral replaced the heavy metal. Graphite left a darker mark on papyrus, but it was so soft that it crumbled easily. To protect the graphite, a holder had to be fashioned for it. The first holders were nothing more than string wound around graphite sticks. Later, hollow wooden sticks replaced the string.

B. In the United States and Canada, it’s an eraser. But in the United Kingdom, India, Ireland, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, the object used to eradicate pencil or ink marks is known as a rubber. Before 1770, when erasers first appeared, many people used small rubber or wax slabs to rub out their penciled mistakes. To eradicate errors in ink, they employed sandstone or pumice. Japanese writers used soft bread to erase pencil marks.

C. Starting in 1888, when American tanner John Loud patented his version of a ballpoint pen to mark hides, over 350 other inventors began patenting additional designs for a ballpoint pen, but none of them saw production. The viscosity, or thickness, of the ink had to be just right: too thin, and it leaked; too thick, and it clogged. The ink’s viscosity was often at the mercy of the temperature. In 1935, Ladislas and Greg Biro set out to invent a better pen and made their Biro pen.

D. Before the 1960s, when Japanese inventor Yukio Horie invented a felt-tip pen that used water-based ink, students kept track of important textbook information by making marginal notes and underlining key words and passages. In 1963, Carter’s Ink produced the Hi-Liter, a marker similar to Horie’s pen. Both instruments rely on capillary action to draw ink into their tips. Fluorescent colours were introduced in 1978. Since then, polyethylene beads molded into porous heads have replaced felt tips, and there are retractable and scented models.

E. The protractor has been measuring angles for 500 years. Mapma- ker Thomas Blundeville first described the instrument in his 1589 monograph. By the early 17th century, protractors were commonly used by maritime navigators. By the 20th century, their use among students in elementary and intermediate schools became prevalent. The variety of uses for protractors dictates their range of shapes. Protractors made of brass, steel, ivory, and plastic appear in the forms of circles, rectangles, squares, semicircles and quarter-circles.

F. German inventor and office supplier Friedrich Soennecken invented the ring binder in 1886. Later, two holes in the side of the binder were added, 80 millimeters apart from one another, setting the standard distance between these openings. When loose-leaf paper appeared in 1854, Henry T. Sisson invented the two- and three- ring binders, but they weren’t mass-produced until 1899, when the Chicago Binder and File Company began to sell the product. The three-ring version remains the most favoured by today’s students.

G. Backpacks haven’t been around for very long. Before their advent, students strapped stacks of books together and carried them at the end of leather or cloth thongs. Alternatively, they carried them by hand, boys slung under their arms, girls cradling them as though they were babes in arms. In 1938, outdoor clothing and gear retailer Gerry Outdoors invented the first zippered backpack, but students weren’t interested in them at the time. They sold mostly to campers, hikers, and skiers. Students stuck with straps or used small briefcases called satchels.

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