1. Threatening rise
2. A bicycle-friendly city
3. Minimize your risk
4. Safe means of transport
5. Disadvantages of vehicle transportation
6. Better for people and nature
7. Dangers of traffic jams
8. The nature helps
A. There are now over a billion motor vehicles in the world – and the number is rising by more than 40 million each year. The average distance driven by car users is growing too – from 8 km a day per person in Western Europe in 2000 to 25 km a day in 2017. This dependence on motor vehicles has given rise to major problems, including environmental pollution, depletion of oil resources, traffic congestion and safety.
B. Plants help to improve a city’s air quality. They convert carbon dioxide into oxygen, filter the air and help to cool down cities. Parks, green belts and green roofs are very important for a city’s climate. In towns like Dresden, special walls planted with green plants have been set up in order to clean the air. One of these walls is supposed to filter as many particulates out of the air as 200 trees.
C. One solution that has been put forward is the long-term solution of designing cities and neighbourhoods so that car journeys are not nccessary – all essential services are located within walking distance or easily accessible by public transport. Not only would this save energy and cut emissions, it would also cnhance the quality of community life, putting the emphasis on people instead of cars.
D. While emissions from new cars are far less harmful than they used to be, city streets and motorways are becoming more crowded than ever, often with older trucks, buses and taxis, which emit cxccssivc levels of smoke and fumes. This concentration of vehicles makes air quality in urban areas unpleasant and sometimes dangerous to breathe. Even Moscow has joined the list of capitals afflicted by congestion and traffic fumes.
E. The study found that car transport is seven times as costly as rail travel and in terms of the social costs it causes other inconveniences such as congestion, accidents, pollution, loss of cropland and natural habitats, depletion of oil resources, and so on. Yet cars easily surpass trains or buses as a flexible and convenient mode of personal transport. It is unrealistic to expect people to give up private cars in favour of mass transit.
F. Amsterdam is famous for its bike culture. The city offers over 400 km (248 miles) of bike paths as well as many bike racks. In the inner city, over 60 per cent of trips are made by bicycles, and even the police patrols the city on bikes. There arc over 1.2 million bicyclcs in Amsterdam – more than the number of citizens. It is estimated that close to 80% of the citizens use bikes, covering a total distance of 1.5 million km every single day!
G. To reduce your exposure to smog and its potential health effects, you should avoid or reduce outdoor activities when smog levels are high, especially during the afternoon. Choose indoor activities instead. Avoid exercising near areas of heavy traffic, especially during rush hour; and if you have a heart or lung condition, talk to your health care professional about additional ways to protect your health when smog levels are high.
IELTS Reading Test 29
ABSENTEEISM IN NURSING: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY
Absence from work is a costly and disruptive problem for any organisation. The cost of absenteeism in Australia has been put at 1.8 million hours per day or $1400 million annually. The study reported here was conducted in the Prince William Hospital in Brisbane, Australia, where, prior to this time, few active steps had been taken to measure, understand or manage the occurrence of absenteeism.
Nursing Absenteeism
A prevalent attitude amongst many nurses in the group selected for study was that there was no reward or recognition for not utilising the paid sick leave entitlement allowed them in their employment conditions. Therefore, they believed they may as well take the days off — sick or otherwise. Similar attitudes have been noted by James (1989), who noted that sick leave is seen by many workers as a right, like annual holiday leave.
Miller and Norton (1986), in their survey of 865 nursing personnel, found that 73 per cent felt they should be rewarded for not taking sick leave, because some employees always used their sick leave. Further, 67 per cent of nurses felt that administration was not sympathetic to the problems shift work causes to employees’ personal and social lives. Only 53 per cent of the respondents felt that every effort was made to schedule staff fairly.
In another longitudinal study of nurses working in two Canadian hospitals, Hackett, Bycio and Guion (1989) examined the reasons why nurses took absence from work. The most frequent reason stated for absence was minor illness to self. Other causes, in decreasing order of frequency, were illness in family, family social function, work to do at home and bereavement.
Method
In an attempt to reduce the level of absenteeism amongst the 250 Registered and Enrolled Nurses in the present study, the Prince William management introduced three different, yet potentially complementary, strategies over 18 months.
Strategy 1: Non-financial (material) incentives
Within the established wage and salary system it was not possible to use hospital funds to support this strategy. However, it was possible to secure incentives from local businesses, including free passes to entertainment parks, theatres, restaurants, etc. At the end of each roster period, the ward with the lowest absence rate would win the prize.
Strategy 2: Flexible fair roistering
Where possible staff were given the opportunity to determine their working schedule within the limits of clinical needs.
Strategy 3: Individual absenteeism and counselling
Each month, managers would analyse the pattern of absence of staff with excessive sick leave (greater than ten days per year for full time employees). Characteristic patterns of potential ‘voluntary absenteeism’ such as absence before and after days off, excessive weekend and night duty absence and multiple single days off were communicated to all ward nurses and then, as necessary, followed up by action.
Results
Absence rates for the six months prior to the incentive scheme ranged from 3.69 percent to 4.32 percent. In the following six months they ranged between 2.87 percent and 3.96 percent. This represents a 20 percent improvement. However, analysing the absence rates on a year-to-year basis, the overall absence rate was 3.60 per cent in the first year and 3.43 per cent in the following year. This represents a 5 per cent decrease from the first to the second year of the study. A significant decrease in absence over the two-year period could not be demonstrated.
Discussion
The non-financial incentive scheme did appear to assist in controlling absenteeism in the short term. As the scheme progressed it became harder to secure prizes and this contributed to the program’s losing momentum and finally ceasing. There were mixed results across wards as well. For example, in wards with staff members who had long-term genuine illness, there was little chance of winning, and to some extent the staff on those wards were disempowered. Our experience would suggest that the long-term effects of incentive awards on absenteeism are questionable.
Over the time of the study, staff were given a larger degree of control in their rosters. This led to significant improvements in communication between managers and staff. A similar effect was found from the implementation of the third strategy. Many of the nurses had not realised the impact their behaviour was having on the organisation and their colleagues but there were also staff members who felt that talking to them about their absenteeism was ‘picking’ on them and this usually had a negative effect on management-employee relationships.
Conclusion
Although there has been some decrease in absence rates, no single strategy or combination of strategies has had a significant impact on absenteeism per se. Notwithstanding the disappointing results, it is our contention that the strategies were not in vain. A shared ownership of absenteeism and a collaborative approach to problem solving has facilitated improved cooperation and communication between management and staff. It is our belief that this improvement alone, while not tangibly measurable, has increased the ability of management to manage the effects of absenteeism more effectively since this study.
Questions 1-7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage I? In boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet write
YES if the statement agrees with the information
NO if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the passage
1 The Prince William Hospital has been trying to reduce absenteeism amongst nurses for many years.
2 Nurses in the Prince William Hospital study believed that there were benefits in taking as little sick leave as possible.
3 Just over half the nurses in the 1986 study believed that management understood the effects that shift work had on them.
4 The Canadian study found that ‘illness in the family’ was a greater cause of absenteeism than ‘work to do at home’.
5 In relation to management attitude to absenteeism the study at the Prince William Hospital found similar results to the two 1989 studies.
6 The study at the Prince William Hospital aimed to find out the causes of absenteeism amongst 250 nurses.
7 The study at the Prince William Hospital involved changes in management practices.
Questions 8-13
Complete the notes below. Choose ONE OR TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
In the first strategy, wards with the lowest absenteeism in different periods would win prizes donated by (8)………………………. In the second strategy, staff were given more control over their (9)……………………….
In the third strategy, nurses who appeared to be taking (10)……………………….. sick leave or (11)…………………… were identified and counselled. Initially, there was a (12)………………………..per cent decrease in absenteeism. The first strategy was considered ineffective and stopped. The second and third strategies generally resulted in better (13)……………………. among staff.
Cambridge IELTS Test 1 to 13
The Motor Car
A There are now over 700 million motor vehicles in the world – and the number is rising by more than 40 million each year. The average distance driven by car users is growing too – from 8 km a day per person in western Europe in 1965 to 25 km a day in 1995. This dependence on motor vehicles has given rise to major problems, including environmental pollution, depletion of oil resources, traffic congestion and safety.
B While emissions from new cars are far less harmful than they used to be, city streets and motorways are becoming more crowded than ever, often with older trucks, buses and taxis, which emit excessive levels of smoke and fumes. This concentration of vehicles makes air quality in urban areas unpleasant and sometimes dangerous to breathe. Even Moscow has joined the list of capitals afflicted by congestion and traffic fumes. In Mexico City, vehicle pollution is a major health hazard.
C Until a hundred years ago, most journeys were in the 20 km range, the distance conveniently accessible by horse. Heavy freight could only be carried by water or rail. The invention of the motor vehicle brought personal mobility to the masses and made rapid freight delivery possible over a much wider area. Today about 90 per cent of inland freight in the United Kingdom is carried by road. Clearly the world cannot revert to the horse-drawn wagon. Can it avoid being locked into congested and polluting ways of transporting people and goods?
D In Europe most cities are still designed for the old modes of transport. Adaptation to the motor car has involved adding ring roads, one-way systems and parking lots. In the United States, more land is assigned to car use than to housing. Urban sprawl means that life without a car is next to impossible. Mass use of motor vehicles has also killed or injured millions of people. Other social effects have been blamed on the car such as alienation and aggressive human behaviour.
E A 1993 study by the European Federation for Transport and Environment found that car transport is seven times as costly as rail travel in terms of the external social costs it entails such as congestion, accidents, pollution, loss of cropland and natural habitats, depletion of oil resources, and so on. Yet cars easily surpass trains or buses as a flexible and conveniept mode of personal transport. It is unrealistic to expect people to give up private cars in favour of mass transit.
F Technical solutions can reduce the pollution problem and increase the fuel efficiency of engines. But fuel consumption and exhaust emissions depend on which cars are preferred by customers and how they are driven. Many people buy larger cars than they need for daily purposes or waste fuel by driving aggressively. Besides, global car use is increasing at a faster rate than the improvement in emissions and fuel efficiency which technology is now making possible.
G One solution that has been put forward is the long-term solution of designing cities and neighbourhoods so that car journeys are not necessary – all essential services being located within walking distance or easily accessible by public transport. Not only would this save energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions, it would also enhance the quality of community life, putting the emphasis aa people instead of cars. Good local government is already bringing this about in some places. But few democratic communities are blessed with the vision – and the capital – to make such profound changes in modern lifestyles.
H A more likely scenario seems to be a combination of mass transit systems for travel into and around cities, with small ‘low emission’ cars for urban use and larger hybrid or lean burn cars for use elsewhere. Electronically tolled highways might be used to ensure that drivers pay charges geared to actual road use. Better integration of transport systems is also highly desirable – and made more feasible by modern computers. But these are solutions for countries which can afford them. In most developing countries, old cars and old technologies continue to predominate.
Questions 14-19
Reading Passage 2 has eight paragraphs (A-H). Which paragraphs concentrate on the following information? Write the appropriate letters (A-H) in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.
14 a comparison of past and present transportation methods
15 how driving habits contribute to road problems
16 the relative merits of cars and public transport
17 the writer’s own prediction of future solutions
18 the increasing use of motor vehicles
19 the impact of the car on city development
Questions 20-26
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 20-26 on your answer sheet write
YES if the statement agrees with the information
NO if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the passage
20 Vehicle pollution is worse in European cities than anywhere else.
21 Transport by horse would be a useful alternative to motor vehicles.
22 Nowadays freight is not carried by water in the United Kingdom.
23 Most European cities were not designed for motor vehicles.
24 Technology alone cannot solve the problem of vehicle pollution.
25 People’s choice of car and attitude to driving is a factor in the pollution problem.
26 Redesigning cities would be a short-term solution.
The Keyless Society
A Students who want to enter the University of Montreal’s Athletic Complex need more than just a conventional ID card – their identities must be authenticated by an electronic hand scanner. In some California housing estates, a key alone is insufficient to get someone in the door; his or her voiceprint must also be verified. And soon, customers at some Japanese banks will have to present their faces for scanning before they can enter the building and withdraw their money.
B All of these are applications of biometrics, a little-known but fast-growing technology that involves the use of physical or biological characteristics to identify individuals. In use for more than a decade at some high- security government institutions in the United States and Canada, biometrics are now rapidly popping up in the everyday world. Already, more than 10,000 facilities, from prisons to day-care centres, monitor people’s fingerprints or other physical parts to ensure that they are who they claim to be. Some 60 biometric companies around the world pulled in at least $22 million last year and that grand total is expected to mushroom to at least $50 million by 1999.
C Biometric security systems operate by storing a digitised record of some unique human feature. When an authorised user wishes to enter or use the facility, the system scans the person’s corresponding characteristics and attempts to match them against those on record. Systems using fingerprints, hands, voices, irises, retinas and faces are already on the market. Others using typing patterns and even body odours are in various stages of development.
D Fingerprint scanners are currently the most widely deployed type of biometric application, thanks to their growing use over the last 20 years by law-enforcement agencies. Sixteen American states now use biometric fingerprint verification systems to check that people claiming welfare payments are genuine. In June, politicians in Toronto voted to do the same, with a pilot project beginning next year.
E To date, the most widely used commercial biometric system is the handkey, a type of hand scanner which reads the unique shape, size and irregularities of people’s hands. Originally developed for nuclear power plants the handkey received its big break when it was used to control access to the plarftf, the handkey received its big break when it was used to control access to the Olympic Village in Atlanta by more than 65,000 athletes, trainers and support staff. Now there are scores of other applications.
F Around the world, the market is growing rapidly. Malaysia, for example, is preparing to equip all of its airports with biometric face scanners to match passengers with luggage. And Japan’s largest maker of cash dispensers is developing new machines that incorporate iris scanners. The first commercial biometric, a hand reader used by an American firm to monitor employee attendance, was introduced in 1974. But only in the past few years has the technology improved enough for the prices to drop sufficiently to make them commercially viable. ‘When we started four years ago, I had to explain to everyone what a biometric is,’ says one marketing expert. ‘Now, there’s much more awareness out there.’
G Not surprisingly, biometrics raise thorny questions about privacy and the potential for abuse. Some worry that governments and industry will be tempted to use the technology to monitor individual behaviour. ‘If someone used your fingerprints to match your health-insurance records with a credit-card record showing you regularly bought lots of cigarettes and fatty foods,’ says one policy analyst, ‘you would see your insurance payments go through the roof.’ In Toronto, critics of the welfare fingerprint plan complained that it would stigmatise recipients by forcing them to submit to a procedure widely identified with criminals.
H Nonetheless, support for biometrics is growing in Toronto as it is in many other communities. In an increasingly crowded and complicated world, biometrics may well be a technology whose time has come.
Questions 27-33
Reading Passage 3 has eight paragraphs (A-H). Choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs B-H from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i—x) in boxes 27-33 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use all of them.
List of headings
i. Common objections
ii. Who’s planning what
iii. This type sells best in shops
iv. The figures say it all
v. Early trials
vi. They can’t get in without these
vii. How does it work?
viii. Fighting fraud
ix. Systems to avoid
x. Accepting the inevitable
27 Paragraph B
28 Paragraph C
29 Paragraph D
30 Paragraph E
31 Paragraph F
32 Paragraph G
33 Paragraph H
Questions 34-40
Look at the following groups of people (Questions 34-40) and the list of biometric systems (A-F) below. Match the groups of people to the biometric system associated with them in Reading Passage 3. Write the appropriate letters A-F in boxes 34-40 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any biometric system more than once.
34 sports students
35 Olympic athletes
36 airline passengers
37 welfare claimants
38 business employees
39 home owners
40 bank customers
List of Biometric Systems
A fingerprint scanner
B hand scanner
C body odour
D voiceprint
E face scanner
F typing pattern
Comments are closed.
Matching Paragraphs Information is a frequently occurring question type in Reading. If planned and practiced properly, it can yield great results.
- You will be given a set of 3 to 6 statements.
- You are required to match the information in each statement to matching information in a paragraph in the reading text.
Strategy
- Carefully read the instructions.
- Find keywords of all questions.
- Skim read the text to get a general understanding.
- Return to the statements. (Answers are not sequential).
- Expect synonyms and paraphrasing to be used.
- Some paragraphs may be empty or contain more than one.
- Repeat this process until you have matched all the statements to paragraphs.
A) There are now over 1.2 billion motor vehicles in the world – and the number is rising by more than 50 million each year. The average distance driven by car users is growing too – from 8 km a day per person in western Europe in 1965 to 50 km a day in 2020. This dependence on motor vehicles has given rise to major problems, including environmental pollution, depletion of oil resources, traffic congestion, and safety.
B) While emissions from new cars are far less harmful than they used to be, city streets and motorways are becoming more crowded than ever, often with older trucks, buses, and taxis which emit excessive levels of smoke and fumes. This concentration of vehicles makes air quality in urban areas unpleasant and sometimes dangerous to breathe. Even Moscow has joined the list of capitals afflicted by congestion and traffic fumes. In Mexico City, vehicle pollution is a major health hazard.
C) Until a hundred years ago, most journeys were in the 20km range, the distance conveniently accessible by horse. Heavy freight could only be carried by water or rail. The invention of the motor vehicle brought personal mobility to the masses and made rapid freight delivery possible over a much wider area. In the United Kingdom, about 90 percent of inland freight is carried by road. The world cannot revert to the horse-drawn wagon. Can it avoid being locked into congested and polluting ways of transporting people and goods?
D) In Europe, most cities are still designed for the old modes of transport. Adaptation to the motor car has involved adding ring roads, one-way systems, and parking lots. In the United States, more land is assigned to car use than to housing. Urban sprawl means that life without a car is next to impossible. Mass use of motor vehicles has also killed or injured millions of people. Other social effects have been blamed on the car such as alienation and aggressive human behavior.
E) A 1993 study by the European Federation for Transport and Environment found that car transport is seven times as costly as rail travel in terms of the external social costs it entails – congestion, accidents, pollution, loss of cropland and natural habitats, depletion of oil resources, and so on. Yet cars easily surpass trains or buses as a flexible and convenient mode of personal transport. It is unrealistic to expect people to give up private cars in favor of mass transit.
F) Technical solutions can reduce the pollution problem and increase the fuelled efficiency of engines. But fuel consumption and exhaust emissions depend on which cars are preferred by customers and how they are driven. Many people buy larger cars than they need for daily purposes or waste fuel by driving aggressively. Besides, global car use is increasing at a faster rate than the improvement in emissions and fuel efficiency which technology is now making possible.
G) Some argue that the only long-term solution is to design cities and neighborhoods so that car journeys are not necessary – all essential services being located within walking distance or easily accessible by public transport. Not only would this save energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions, but it would also enhance the quality of community life, putting the emphasis on people instead of cars. Good local government is already bringing this about in some places. But few democratic communities are blessed with the vision – and the capital – to make such profound changes in modern lifestyles.
H) A more likely scenario seems to be a combination of mass transit systems for travel into and around cities, with small ‘low emission’ cars for urban use and larger hybrid or lean burn cars for use elsewhere. Electronically tolled highways might be used to ensure that drivers pay charges geared to actual road use. Better integration of transport systems is also highly desirable – and made more feasible by modern computers. But these are solutions for countries which can afford them. In most developing countries, old cars and old technologies continue to predominate
Questions 1 – 6
The Passage has eight paragraphs labelled A-H.
Which paragraphs contain the following information?
Write the correct letter A-H in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1. a comparison of past and present transportation methods
2. how driving habits contribute to road problems
3. the relative merits of cars and public transport
4. the writer’s prediction on future solutions
5. the increasing use of motor vehicles
6. the impact of the car on city development
Answers
1.C
2. F
3. E
4. H
5. A
6. D
- Текст
- Веб-страница
There are now over 700 million motor vehicles in the world — and the number is rising by more than 40 million each year. The average distance driven by car users is growing too — from 8 km a day per person in Western Europe in 1965 to 25 km a day in 1995. This dependence on motor vehicles has given rise to major problems, including environmental pollution, depletion of oil resources,
traffic congestion and safety.
While emissions from new cars are far less harmful than they used to be, city streets and motorways are becoming more crowded than ever, often with older trucks, buses and taxis, which emit excessive levels of smoke and fumes. This concentration of vehicles makes air quality in urban areas unpleasant and sometimes dangerous to breathe. Even Moscow has joined the list of capitals afflicted by congestion and traffic fumes. In Mexico City, vehicle pollution is a
major health hazard.
Earlier heavy freight could only be carried by water or rail. The invention of the motor vehicle brought personal mobility to the masses.
Fuel consumption and exhaust emissions depend on which cars are preferred by customers and how they are driven. Many people buy larger cars than they need for daily purposes or waste fuel by driving aggressively. Besides, global car use is increasing at a faster rate than the improvement in emissions and fuel efficiency which technology is now making possible.
One solution that has been put forward is the long-term solution of designing cities and neighborhoods so that car journeys are not necessary – all essential services being located within walking distance or easily accessible by public transport. Not only would this save energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions, it would also enhance the quality of community life.
0/5000
Результаты (русский) 1: [копия]
Скопировано!
Есть в настоящее время более 700 миллионов автомобилей в мире — и число растет на более чем 40 миллионов человек каждый год. Средний пробег автомобиля пользователей растет слишком — от 8 км в день на человека в Западной Европе в 1965 году до 25 км в день в 1995 году. Эта зависимость от механических транспортных средств вызывает серьезные проблемы, включая загрязнение окружающей среды, истощение нефтяных ресурсов,пробки и безопасность.Хотя выбросы от новых автомобилей гораздо менее вредными, чем раньше, городских улиц и автомагистралей становится все более насыщенным, чем когда-либо, часто с взрослыми грузовиков, автобусов и такси, которые выделяют чрезмерные уровни дыма и паров. Эта концентрация транспортных средств делает качество воздуха в городских районах неприятные и иногда опасно дышать. Даже Москва присоединилась к списку столиц пострадавших от заторов и движения паров. В Мехико, является загрязнение автомобиляопасность для здоровья.Ранее тяжеловесного груза может выполнять только водой или железнодорожным транспортом. Изобретение механического транспортного средства принес личной мобильности для масс. Выбросы выхлопных газов и расход топлива зависит от того, какие автомобили предпочитают клиентами и как они управляются. Многие люди покупают больше автомобилей, чем они нуждаются для ежедневных целей или отходов топлива вождения агрессивно. Кроме того использование глобального автомобиля увеличивается более быстрыми темпами, чем улучшение в области выбросов и эффективности использования топлива, технологии теперь делает возможным.Одно решение, которое было выдвинуто это долгосрочное решение проектирования городов и районов, так что автомобиль путешествия не нужно – все основные услуги, которые расположены в пределах пешей досягаемости или легко добраться на общественном транспорте. Не только это будет экономить энергию и сократить выбросы двуокиси углерода, это также позволит повысить качество жизни общины.
переводится, пожалуйста, подождите..
Результаты (русский) 2:[копия]
Скопировано!
Есть в настоящее время более 700 миллионов автомобилей в мире — и это число растет более чем на 40 миллионов человек каждый год. Среднее расстояние движимый пользователей автомобилей растет слишком — от 8 км в день на человека в Западной Европе в 1965 г. до 25 км в сутки в 1995 году зависимость от механических транспортных средств привело к серьезным проблемам, в том числе загрязнение окружающей среды, истощение нефти ресурсов,
заторы и безопасность движения. в
то время как выбросы от новых автомобилей гораздо менее вредными , чем они имели обыкновение быть, городских улиц и автострад становятся все более многолюдно , чем когда — либо, часто с более старыми грузовых автомобилей, автобусов и такси, которые испускают чрезмерные уровни дыма и газов , Такая концентрация автомобилей делает качество воздуха в городских районах неприятных и иногда опасных дышать. Даже Москва вошла в список столиц , пострадавших в результате дорожно — транспортных заторов и испарений. В Мехико, загрязнение окружающей среды транспортное средство является источником
серьезной опасности.
Ранее тяжеловесных грузов может осуществляться только по воде или по железной дороге. Изобретение автотранспортного средства принесли личную мобильность в массы.
Расход топлива и выбросы выхлопных газов в зависимости от которых автомобили являются предпочтительными клиентами и как они приводятся в движение. Многие люди покупают более крупные автомобили , чем они нуждаются для ежедневных целей или отходов топлива при движении агрессивно. Кроме того, глобальное использование автомобилей растет более быстрыми темпами , чем улучшение выбросов и эффективности использования топлива , которое технология теперь делает возможным.
Одно решение , которое было выдвинуто является долгосрочным решением проектирования городов и районов , так что автомобильные поездки не являются необходимо — все необходимые службы расположены в нескольких минутах ходьбы или легко добраться на общественном транспорте. Мало того, это позволит сэкономить энергию и сократить выбросы углекислого газа в атмосферу, было бы также повысить качество общественной жизни.
переводится, пожалуйста, подождите..
Результаты (русский) 3:[копия]
Скопировано!
сейчас более 700 миллионов автомобилей в мире — и их число увеличивается более чем на 40 млн. долл. сша в год.среднее расстояние на машине пользователей растет слишком — 8 км в день на человека в западной европе в 1965 году до 25 км в день в 1995 году.эта зависимость от механических транспортных средств, вызвал серьезные проблемы, в том числе загрязнения окружающей среды, истощения нефтяных ресурсов,дорожные заторы и безопасности.хотя выбросов из новых автомобилей являются гораздо менее вредными, чем раньше, городских улиц и магистралей, становятся все более тесно, чем когда — либо, часто пожилые грузовики, автобусы и такси, которые выделяют уровней, дыма и гари.такой концентрации транспортных средств качества воздуха в городах неприятно и порой опасных дышать.даже москва присоединилась к списку стран, пострадавших от пробок и движения пары.в мехико, транспортным загрязнением являетсясерьезную опасность для здоровья людей.ранее тяжелых грузов может осуществляться лишь по воде или железнодорожным транспортом.изобретения автомобиля к индивидуальной мобильности в массы.расход топлива и выбросов выхлопных газов, зависеть от того, какие автомобили предпочитают клиентов и о том, как они связаны.многие люди покупают больше автомобилей, чем они должны ежедневно целей или отходов топлива путем реализации агрессивно.кроме того, глобального использования автомобилей растет быстрее, чем увеличение выбросов и эффективности использования топлива и технологии в настоящее время сделать возможным.одно решение, которое было выдвинуто является долгосрочным решением проектирования городов и районов, так что машину путешествия не необходимые – все основные услуги находятся в нескольких минутах ходьбы или легко добраться на общественном транспорте.это не только будет экономии энергии и сокращения выбросов углекислого газа, будет также способствовать повышению качества жизни общества.
переводится, пожалуйста, подождите..
Другие языки
- English
- Français
- Deutsch
- 中文(简体)
- 中文(繁体)
- 日本語
- 한국어
- Español
- Português
- Русский
- Italiano
- Nederlands
- Ελληνικά
- العربية
- Polski
- Català
- ภาษาไทย
- Svenska
- Dansk
- Suomi
- Indonesia
- Tiếng Việt
- Melayu
- Norsk
- Čeština
- فارسی
Поддержка инструмент перевода: Клингонский (pIqaD), Определить язык, азербайджанский, албанский, амхарский, английский, арабский, армянский, африкаанс, баскский, белорусский, бенгальский, бирманский, болгарский, боснийский, валлийский, венгерский, вьетнамский, гавайский, галисийский, греческий, грузинский, гуджарати, датский, зулу, иврит, игбо, идиш, индонезийский, ирландский, исландский, испанский, итальянский, йоруба, казахский, каннада, каталанский, киргизский, китайский, китайский традиционный, корейский, корсиканский, креольский (Гаити), курманджи, кхмерский, кхоса, лаосский, латинский, латышский, литовский, люксембургский, македонский, малагасийский, малайский, малаялам, мальтийский, маори, маратхи, монгольский, немецкий, непальский, нидерландский, норвежский, ория, панджаби, персидский, польский, португальский, пушту, руанда, румынский, русский, самоанский, себуанский, сербский, сесото, сингальский, синдхи, словацкий, словенский, сомалийский, суахили, суданский, таджикский, тайский, тамильский, татарский, телугу, турецкий, туркменский, узбекский, уйгурский, украинский, урду, филиппинский, финский, французский, фризский, хауса, хинди, хмонг, хорватский, чева, чешский, шведский, шона, шотландский (гэльский), эсперанто, эстонский, яванский, японский, Язык перевода.
- lotfi
- Воспаление кондиломыТравма и появление я
- 【HK】Flight departed from Origin
- Are you in pain because of professor nam
- приезжай в гости
- The history of Pizza Pizza is a food mad
- Shipment arrive at Moscow
- Elvis Presley Elvis Presley is among the
- The history of Pizza Pizza is a food mad
- Привет.Проверь почту,я тебе написал на с
- очень симпатичный парень
- Time in seconds waiting time answer on t
- сижу на кресле
- Özür dilerim. Ben, senin İngilizce biliy
- It’ possible to set the value in the «Mi
- На фото: остроконечные кондиломыОсновной
- It’s possible to set the value in the «M
- На фото: остроконечные кондиломыОсновной
- иногда читаю книги
- Спаси и сохрани
- Украинские правоохранители конфисковали
- wash with similar colours
- Воспаление кондиломыТравма и появление я
- wash with similar colours
A
There are now over 700 million motor vehicles in the world — and the number is rising by more than 40 million each year. The average distance driven by car users is growing too — from 8 km a day per person in western Europe in 1965 to 25 km a day in 1995. This dependence on motor vehicles has given rise to major problems, including environmental pollution, depletion of oil resources, traffic congestion and safety.
B
While emissions from new cars are far less harmful than they used to be, city streets and motorways are becoming more crowded than ever, often with older trucks, buses and taxis, which emit excessive levels of smoke and fumes. This concentration of vehicles makes air quality in urban areas unpleasant and sometimes dangerous to breathe. Even Moscow has joined the list of capitals afflicted by congestion and traffic fumes. In Mexico City, vehicle pollution is a major health hazard.
C
Until a hundred years ago, most journeys were in the 20 km range, the distance conveniently accessible by horse. Heavy freight could only be carried by water or rail. The invention of the motor vehicle brought personal mobility to the masses and made rapid freight delivery possible over a much wider area. Today about 90 per cent of inland freight in the United Kingdom is carried by road. Clearly the world cannot revert to the horse-drawn wagon. Can it avoid being locked into congested and polluting ways of transporting people and goods?
D
In Europe most cities are still designed for the old modes of transport. Adaptation to the motor car has involved adding ring roads, one-way systems and parking lots. In the United States, more land is assigned to car use than to housing. Urban sprawl means that life without a car is next to impossible. Mass use of motor vehicles has also killed or injured millions of people. Other social effects have been blamed on the car such as alienation and aggressive human behaviour.
E
A 1993 study by the European Federation for Transport and Environment found that car transport is seven times as costly as rail travel in terms of the external social costs it entails such as congestion, accidents, pollution, loss of cropland and natural habitats, depletion of oil resources, and so on. Yet cars easily surpass trains or buses as a flexible and convenient mode of personal transport. It is unrealistic to expect people to give up private cars in favour of mass transit.
F
Technical solutions can reduce the pollution problem and increase the fuel efficiency of engines. But fuel consumption and exhaust emissions depend on which cars are preferred by customers and how they are driven. Many people buy larger cars than they need for daily purposes or waste fuel by driving aggressively. Besides, global car use is increasing at a faster rate than the improvement in emissions and fuel efficiency which technology is now making possible.
G
One solution that has been put forward is the long-term solution of designing cities and neighbourhoods so that car journeys are not necessary — all essential services being located within walking distance or easily accessible by public transport. Not only would this save energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions, it would also enhance the quality of community life, putting the emphasis on people instead of cars. Good local government is already bringing this about in some places. But few democratic communities are blessed with the vision — and the capital — to make such profound changes in modern lifestyles.
H
A more likely scenario seems to be a combination of mass transit systems for travel into and around cities, with small ‘low emission’ cars for urban use and larger hybrid or lean burn cars for use elsewhere. Electronically tolled highways might be used to ensure that drivers pay charges geared to actual road use. Better integration of transport systems is also highly desirable — and made more feasible by modern computers. But these are solutions for countries which can afford them. In most developing countries, old cars and old technologies continue to predominate.
Questions 1-6
Reading Passage 2 has eight paragraphs (A-H). Which paragraphs concentrate on the following information?
Write the appropriate letters (A-H) in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB You need only write ONE letter for each answer.
1 a comparison of past and present transportation methods
Answer: C
2 how driving habits contribute to road problems
Answer: F
3 the relative merits of cars and public transport
Answer: E
4 the writer’s own prediction of future solutions
Answer: H
5 the increasing use of motor vehicles
Answer: A
6 the impact of the car on city development
Answer: D
Questions 7-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet write
YES if the statement agrees with the information
NO if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the passage
7 Vehicle pollution is worse in European cities than anywhere else.
Answer: NOT GIVEN
8 Transport by horse would be a useful alternative to motor vehicles.
Answer: NO
9 Nowadays freight is not carried by water in the United Kingdom.
Answer: NOT GIVEN
10 Most European cities were not designed for motor vehicles.
Answer: YES
11 Technology alone cannot solve the problem of vehicle pollution.
Answer: YES
12 People’s choice of car and attitude to driving is a factor in the pollution problem.
Answer: YES
13 Redesigning cities would be a short-term solution.
Answer: NO
!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC «-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN»
!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC «-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN»
ECOLOGY
Motor vehicles have brought enormous social and economic benefits. They
have enabled flexibility in where people live and work, the rapid and timely distribution
of goods and ready access to a variety of services and leisure options. Many people are
very attached to their cars. They say that having a car is an essential part of their
lives – it offers mobility, power, freedom and convenience. The typical car owner spends
1,600 hours (over 50 days) each year on his car: driving, parking and cleaning it.
The car industry is the largest industry in the world economy. It is
dominated by huge American, Japanese and European companies like General Motors, Toyota
and Volkswagen. General Motors is the largest transnational corporation. In 1986 its
annual turnover of 40 billion dollars was greater than the Gross Domestic Product of all
Third World nations except Brazil, China, India and Mexico.
Between 1950 and 1995 the number of cars in the word increased
ninefold. In 1950 there were only 70 million cars, trucks and buses on the world’s
roads. By 1994 there were about 630 million. Since 1970, the global fleet of vehicles has
been growing at the rate of about 16 million cars per year. This expansion has been
accompanied by a similar growth in fuel consumption. If this kind of growth continues, by
the year 2025 there will be over 1 billion vehicles on the world’s roads.
In most parts of the world the motor car is seen as a sign of progress
and development. In the wealthy nations of North America, Europe and Japan per capita car
ownership is very high, while in most developing nations it is still very low. There are
about 750 vehicles per 1000 persons in the United States, more than 500 in Japan and only
8 vehicles per 1000 person in China. But the car industry in China is developing rapidly,
though traditionally up to 90 % of all travel in Chinese cities is made by bicycle. China
plans to invest 10 billion dollars in the car industry and wants to produce one million
cars a year.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL COST OF CARS
The widespread use of cars has real environmental and economic costs. Vehicles
are major sources of urban air pollution and greenhouse gases emissions. They make our
towns and cities dirtier, noisier and more dangerous places to live. Vehicles also
represent an important threat to the economic security of many nations because of the need
to import oil to fuel them.
The motor car industry requires a vast quantity of raw materials. It
uses 20% of all world’s steel, 10% of aluminium, 7% of copper, 50% of lead and 60% of
natural rubber. Besides this, the transport sector consumes about one half of the
world’s oil production, the bulk of it as motor fuel.
Vehicles accounted for 35% of all oil consumed in Japan, 44% in Western
Europe, 49% in the Third World and 65% in the USA. Canadians and Americans together use
about 125 billion gallons of fuel per year – about 800 gallons per car. Australians use
about 500 gallons and Europeans about 300 gallons per car.
Car engines use only 10 to 20% of energy in the fuel – the rest is
lost as noise, heat and pollution.
Road traffic is the source of one third of all harmfull air pollution
in the world. Car exhausts contain nitrogen oxide, which contributes to acid rain, carbon
dioxide, which contribute to global warming, and lead, which damages human brain and
kidney.
Worldwide, vehicles currently emit well over 900 million metric tons of
carbon dioxide each year. These emissions account for more than 15 per cent of global
releases of this greenhouse gas. Because of their large vehicle fleets, developed
countries are responsible for a large share of emissions. These countries represent only
16% of the world’s population, but they accounted for two thirds of total world carbon
dioxide emissions from cars.
Besides greenhouse gases, car exhausts contain lead, which is added to
gasoline to improve the engine performance.
Lead is particularly toxic to the brain, kidney, reproductive system
and cardiovascular system. It is very dangerous because it can accumulate in the body.
Lead is a special hazard for young children. Lead exposures can significantly reduce the
IQ of school-aged children; they also cause aggressive behavior, delinquency and attention
disorders.
Many countries introduced catalytic converters into their cars, which
require unleaded gasoline. But despite widely recognized damage to the health, most
countries still use leaded fuel. By 1996 only 14 countries had completely phased out the
use of leaded gasoline.
Gasoline and diesel fuel are distilled at huge refineries which produce
both toxic waste and toxic air emissions. The refineries are located in towns, that have
the highest cancer rates and are populated by workers with the highest occupational
disease rates.
Road building withdraws large areas of land from agricultural use,
requires tremendous amounts of resources and causes great changes in the environment.
Motorways and the associated interchanges, exits and entry ramps cover thousand of acres
of prime food-producing land in Europe. In the USA 60 thousand square miles (10 per cent
of the country’s arable land) have been paved. That is the area the size of Europe. In
places where roads are built, the topsoil is pushed aside, the vegetation is stripped away
and animal habitats are destroyed.
Asphalt is made from toxic tar, that remains from coal and oil
processing. To that is added aggregate which often comes from incinerators and power
plants, and is laden with dangerous heavy metals like cadmium and mercury. These materials
slowly leach their contents into the soil and water.
In cities close to one third of all land goes to accommodate the car
– parking lots, expressways, roundabouts, bridges, petrol stations and garages. Parking
lots devour huge stretches of land and are empty 80 per cent of the time. Between parking
spaces at home, at work and at the shopping centers, the average car uses three times the
space of the average home. Parking lots for shopping centers are the most environmentally
destructive. Car berths are marked by thick puddles of oil and transmission fluid and the
water run-off from these places violates environmental standards set for industrial
discharges.
People have been encouraged to use cars by the changing design of towns
and the growth of large workplaces, shopping centers, hospitals and schools. People who do
not have access to a car find life more and more difficult and the decline of public
transport often adds to their difficulties.
Large numbers of women, all children, most young people, the elderly
and the poor cannot or do not want to own or use a car. Building more cars and roads does
not solve these people’s transport problems.
From the 1960s onwards more and more people protested against the motor
car. Some pressure groups and local councils opposed traffic in towns, the building of new
roads, the closure of railways and the loss of bus services. Some councils restricted the
use of cars, improved public transport and created better facilities for pedestrians and
cyclists.
Now car manufacturers are trying to make more environmentally friendly
cars, which use fuel more efficiently and cause less pollution. From 1992 all new cars in
Europe had to be fitted with catalytic converters.
In the future cars may run on solar power, alcohol from plants or fuel
cells using methanol or hydrogen. They will be much lighter with aerodynamic design and
advanced electronics.
What can you do to reduce the cost of the car to people and their
environment?
1. Walk, cycle or take public transport wherever possible. Shop locally
when you can.
2. Maintain and drive your car carefully so that it uses energy efficiently, does not
cause unnecessary pollution and lasts as long as possible.
3. Buy a small, fuel-efficient car with a catalytic converter.
VOCABULARY:
arable land пахотная земля
cancer rate заболеваемость раком
catalytic converter каталитический
преобразователь
fuel consumption потребление торлива
incinerator завод, сжигающий мусор
industrial discharges промышленные стоки
leach просачиваться
lead exposure воздействие свинца на организм,
отравление свинцом
per capita на душу населения
power plant электростанция
raw materials сырье
refinery нефтеперерабатывающий завод
run-off сток
waste отходы
I. Agree or disagree. Try to prove your opinion.
1. Motor cars did not bring any social or economic benefits.
2. The car industry is the largest in the world economy.
3. Global car fleet growth was accompanied by a decrease of fuel consumption.
4. The widespread use of cars does not produce any environmental problems.
5. The motor car industry requires a vast quantity of raw materials.
6. Car engines use 80% of energy in fuel.
7. Car exhausts do not contain any harmful substances.
8. Developed countries are responsible for the largest share of carbon dioxide emissions.
9. There is no use to run your car on unleaded gasoline, because lead is absolutely
harmless.
10. Towns with oil refineries have the highest cancer rates.
11. Roads use up large areas of arable land.
12. People have been encouraged to use cars by the changed design of cities.
13. People do not protest against the expanded use of cars.
II. Working in pairs, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
cars. One persons speaks for cars and another against them.
Compied by Elena Lamanova
Установите соответствие тем 1 — 7 текстам A — F. Занесите свои ответы в соответствующее поле справа. Используйте каждую цифру только один раз. В задании одна тема лишняя.
Elephants sense ‘danger’ clothes
- 1. either a Maasai or a Kamba man
- 2. who do not hunt elephants
- 3. when they detected the smell of clothes
- 4. who carried out the research
- 5. the amount of risk they sense
- 6. spearing elephants
- 7. when they spotted red but not white cloth
St Andrews University researchers discovered that elephants could recognise the degree of danger posed by various groups of individuals. The study found that African elephants always reacted with fear A ___ previously worn by men of the Maasai tribe. They are known to demonstrate their courage by В ___ .
The elephants also responded aggressively to red clothing, which defines traditional Maasai dress. However, the elephants showed a much milder reaction to clothing previously worn by the Kamba people, С ___ and pose little threat.
The researchers first presented elephants with clean, red clothing and with red clothing that had been worn for five days by D ___ .
They revealed that Maasai-smelt clothing motivated elephants to travel significantly faster in the first minute after they moved away. They then investigated whether elephants could also use the colour of clothing as a cue to classify a potential threat and found the elephants reacted with aggression E ___ . This suggested that they associated the colour red with the Maasai.
The researchers believe the distinction in the elephants’ emotional reaction to smell and colour might be explained by F ___ . They might be able to distinguish among different human groups according to the level of risk they posed. «We regard this experiment as just a start to investigating precisely how elephants ‘see the world’, and it may be that their abilities will turn out to equal or exceed those of our closer relatives, the monkeys and apes,» researchers added.
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания А15—А21, обводя цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую номеру выбранного вами варианта ответа.
Cry-baby
It was almost midnight before they got around to giving the Oscars to the really well-known personalities. At first a series of guest stars had awarded the prizes: to the best designer, to the best special-effects man, for the best technical invention for motion pictures during the year, and to all the other people, so unknown outside the industry, but so significant within it.
I looked around the theatre, recognizing most of the weighty faces in the business, but not caring much. You see, I was pretty nervous. Myra Caldwell, whom I had brought to the ceremony, was sitting there beside me, and right across the aisle was Joan Weyland. Now, to get the picture properly, you have to remember that during that particular year Myra had played the sensational supporting role in The Devil Loses and had been called the greatest find in the history of pictures. But that was the same year that Joan Weyland had stolen a big picture called Calumet Centre right out from under the nose of one of the most famous female stars in the industry. The only other actress nominated was not given much chance. Now in a few minutes, they were going to announce who had won the Oscar for the Best Supporting Actress of the year. It was the hottest Contest and everybody was aware of it. Furthermore, it was no secret that the two leading contestants would be delighted to boil each other in oil — win, lose, or draw. And here they were across the aisle from each other. Do you get why I was nervous?
Then the lights went down. They were going to run short scenes from the pictures for which the actors and actresses had been nominated. The supporting-actress pictures were coming on, and here was Joan Weyland in her grand scene from Calumet Centre. The audience started to applaud as soon as they saw her.
After that they ran a short episode from Whirlwind, showing the other nominee, a refugee actress called Tanya Braden. I had never seen the picture of the actress, and the picture hadn’t made much money, but there was no doubt she could act! She played the star’s mother and she made you believe it.
Then they ran Myra’s big moment in The Devil Loses. After it was over, I tried to guess who had the biggest chance.
«I think I won,» Myra said to me.
The lights went up. The old actor, who had won the Supporting Actor award the year before, came through the curtains and prepared to present the award. I didn’t see how I was going to live through the next few minutes. He got the envelope and began opening it very slowly.
He was loving every second of it, the old man. Then he looked at the little piece of paper.
«The Winner,» he said, then paused again, «is Miss Tanya Braden, for her performance in Whirlwind «
Well, I’m not too sure about the sequence of events that followed. I don’t remember the applause, because Joan let out a loud cry from across the aisle that drowned out everything else. Then Myra started to cry. I don’t mean cry like the ordinary person, but I mean cry so that the building shook.
Then Joan jumped to her feet and started out, and her mother accompanied her. But I couldn’t do anything with Myra. The show was interrupted and the whole theatre was staring at her. I picked her up and carried her out.
It wasn’t a very pleasant performance, but I think there is some excuse. After all, Joan is 8 years old, and Myra is only 6, and she isn’t used to being up so late. I’m a little on her side anyway. And why not? I’m her father.
Your amazing brain
You carry around a three-pound mass of wrinkly material in your head that controls every single thing you will ever do. From enabling you to think, learn, create, and feel emotions to controlling every blink, breath, and heartbeat — this fantastic control center is your brain. It is a structure so amazing that in the foreword to Discovering the Brain, famous scientist James Watson wrote, “The brain is the most complex thing we have yet discovered in our universe. It contains hundreds of billions of cells interlinked through trillions of connections. The brain confuses the mind.” Obviously to understand brain function, we need to confront its complexity.
Imagine your kitten is on the kitchen counter. She’s about to step onto a stove. You have only seconds to act. Accessing the signals coming from your eyes, your brain quickly calculates when, where, and at what speed you will need to dive to intercept her. Then it orders your muscles to do so. Your timing is perfect and she’s safe. No computer can come close to your brain’s awesome ability to download, process, and react to the flood of information coming from your eyes, ears, and other sensory organs.
Your brain contains about 100 billion microscopic cells called neurons — so many it would take you over 3,000 years to count them all. Whenever you dream, laugh, think, see, or move, it’s because tiny chemical and electrical signals are racing between these neurons along billions of tiny neuron highways. Believe it or not, the activity in your brain never stops. Countless messages zip around inside it every second like a supercharged pinball machine. Your neurons create and send more messages than all the phones in the entire world. And while a single neuron generates only a tiny amount of electricity, all your neurons together can generate enough electricity to power a low-wattage bulb.
Neurons send information to your brain at more than 150 miles (241 kilometers) per hour. For example, a bee lands on your bare foot. Sensory neurons in your skin relay this information to your spinal cord and brain at a speed of more than 150 miles (241 kilometers) per hour. Your brain then uses motor neurons to transmit the message back through your spinal cord to your foot to shake the bee off quickly. Motor neurons can relay this information at more than 200 miles (322 kilometers) per hour.
Riding a bike seems impossible at first. But soon you master it. How? As you practice, your brain sends “bike riding” messages along certain pathways of neurons over and over, forming new connections. In fact, the structure of your brain changes every time you learn, as well as whenever you have a new thought or memory.
It is well known that any exercise that makes your heart beat faster, like running or playing basketball, is great for your body and can even help improve your mood. But large-scale efforts of scientists from a group of institutes from the National Institutes of Health have recently showed that for a period of time after you’ve exercised, your body produces a chemical that makes your brain more receptive for gaining new knowledge. So if you’re stuck on a homework problem, go out and play a game of soccer, then try the problem again. You just might discover that you’re able to solve it.
ВОПРОС 1: According to the text, the most distinctive characteristic of the brain is its
1) ability to control the body.
2) elaborateness.
3) size.
4) weight.
ВОПРОС 2: The claims that the brain is better than any computer because it
1) processes more information.
2) works faster.
3) can download information from different sources.
4) reacts to information more adequately.
ВОПРОС 3: According to the text, the work of brain neurons influences
1) electricity production.
2) our dreams.
3) everything we do.
4) character of messages we send.
ВОПРОС 4: The narrator compares the work of neurons to a pinball machine to
1) show the character of brain work.
2) raise the awareness of the brain’s nature.
3) stress the amount of information that the brain processes.
4) illustrate the shape of the neuron highways.
ВОПРОС 5: Comparing sensory and motor neurons, we can make a conclusion that
1) motor neurons transmit information faster.
2) there are more motor neurons.
3) sensory neurons transmit information faster.
4) there are more sensory neurons.
ВОПРОС 6: The structure of brain changes when
1) our memory fails.
2) new neurons appear.
3) we are riding a bike.
4) we acquire new knowledge.
ВОПРОС 7: Physical exercises proved to be good for …
1) the production of brain chemicals.
2) solving homework problems.
3) giving the brain a rest.
4) maintaining a good mood.
ВОПРОС 1: – 2
ВОПРОС 2: – 1
ВОПРОС 3: – 3
ВОПРОС 4: – 1
ВОПРОС 5: – 1
ВОПРОС 6: – 4
ВОПРОС 7: – 1
Last month Wards Auto published a story pointing out that the world’s motor vehicle count was now over 1 billion. As could be expected, registered vehicles in China grew by 27.5 percent to 78 million last year.
Don’t worry; the U.S. is still well ahead in the who-has-the-most-cars race with 240 million registered vehicles, but I am afraid that the Japanese have fallen into second place. The thought occurred, that if we squeezed a bit, all seven billion of us currently inhabiting the earth with a little organization might be able to climb aboard a car, truck or bus and go for a simultaneous ride — just before the fossil fuel age comes to an end.
I was curious as to whether Wards could draw any profound conclusions from this milestone, but other than mentioning that it took 24 years to go from 500 million to a billion vehicles and that the global vehicle fleet grew by 35 million last year, there was little of note. Those 35 million new gas tanks that hit the road last year should give peak oil doubters some insight into why it will become increasingly difficult to keep up with new demand for oil.
This milestone, however, is a good opportunity to ponder just where transportation is going in the next 25 years and beyond. There are of course many unknowns to this question, but trends are already in place.
The most important development affecting the automobile over the next quarter century will be the amount of economic growth that can take place in an era of shrinking natural resources — minerals, food, water, good climatic conditions. While some corners of the globe should be able to grow for a while, these situations are likely to have very short half-lives. For most of mankind, the next 25 years and beyond will be an era of contracting economies and smaller pies.
In the United States, we have reached the stage where there is a motor vehicle for every 1.3 people and at least one for every licensed driver. This situation is unlikely to obtain in an era of little or no economic growth, limited employment opportunities and undreamed of energy costs. It is highly unlikely that there will be anything approaching 240 million registered vehicles in the U.S. 25 years from now. From the vantage point of 2011, it seems probable that many will not be able to afford to own and operate personal motor vehicles of the size and types we have today.
The configuration and energy consumption of vehicles are likely to undergo more changes in the next 25 years than they have in the last 100. After all, the car and truck of 1910 was not all that much different than what we have today. Given what we now think of as high gas prices, vehicle manufacturers are falling all over themselves in efforts to produce much more fuel efficient vehicles.
In the U.S. we are now facing standards requiring that cars achieve an average of 54.5 MPG 15 years from now. First will come all sorts of weight reductions, such as eliminating spare tires, and adding more plastic and aluminum parts. Engines will become more efficient and car bodies will become more aerodynamic. All this will be good for another five or maybe 10 miles per gallon, but to get to savings envisioned in the new regulations, we are going to see a widespread change to more hybrid or all electric vehicles. The most efficient of these vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius, are already meeting the standards envisioned for 2025. Although these changes will be costly, it does not take much arithmetic to conclude that if energy costs are three or four times higher than they are today then mileage will become the key factor by which motor vehicles are judged.
Detractors of these new mileage standards are usually people who have little grasp, or prefer not to think about where real energy costs are going to be 15 years from now. They point out the advanced materials required to build a low-weigh, high mileage, vehicles will be so great that it will push cars beyond what many, if not most, can afford. There is probably a lot of truth in this if one thinks of cars only in the manner that most of us do — hulking things with 4,6, or more seats that are in most cases rarely used.
The message here is that an all-purpose motor vehicle that can move 6-10 people 300 miles in exquisite comfort in any weather is what we will no longer be able to afford. Specialized motor vehicles ranging from electric bicycles and tricycles through one or two passenger cars can be manufactured and operated for a tiny fraction of the average car on the road today. The folks over at Volkswagen say they are about to announce a single seat electric car that will be powered only by renewable energy. They have already demonstrated a two passenger car capable of 260 miles per gallon. In short the form factor for cars and trucks has got to change to something more efficient.
Many in America love the iconic full-sized pickup, yet a quick survey will reveal that most are being driven around by one person with nothing in the back — at great expense to the future of the global oil supply. Wouldn’t it be better if those who really needed to move the occasional pickup sized load had something equivalent to a micro tractor-trailer that would not require that thousands of pounds of useless steel be dragged around behind one person going to the store.
By. Tom Whipple
Source: Post Carbon
Задания 12-18
Прочитайте рассказ и выполните задания 12–18. В каждом задании обведите букву A, B, C или D, соответствующую выбранному вами варианту ответа.
Your amazing brain
You carry around a three-pound mass of wrinkly material in your head that controls every single thing you will ever do. From enabling you to think, learn, create, and feel emotions to controlling every blink, breath, and heartbeat – this fantastic control center is your brain. It is a structure so amazing that in the foreword to Discovering the Brain, famous scientist James Watson wrote, “The brain is the most complex thing we have yet discovered in our universe. It contains hundreds of billions of cells interlinked through trillions of connections. The brain confuses the mind.” Obviously to understand brain function, we need to confront its complexity.
Imagine your kitten is on the kitchen counter. She’s about to step onto a stove. You have only seconds to act. Accessing the signals coming from your eyes, your brain quickly calculates when, where, and at what speed you will need to dive to intercept her. Then it orders your muscles to do so. Your timing is perfect and she’s safe. No computer can come close to your brain’s awesome ability to download, process, and react to the flood of information coming from your eyes, ears, and other sensory organs.
Your brain contains about 100 billion microscopic cells called neurons – so many it would take you over 3,000 years to count them all. Whenever you dream, laugh, think, see, or move, it’s because tiny chemical and electrical signals are racing between these neurons along billions of tiny neuron highways. Believe it or not, the activity in your brain never stops. Countless messages zip around inside it every second like a supercharged pinball machine. Your neurons create and send more messages than all the phones in the entire world. And while a single neuron generates only a tiny amount of electricity, all your neurons together can generate enough electricity to power a low-wattage bulb.
Neurons send information to your brain at more than 150 miles (241 kilometers) per hour. For example, a bee lands on your bare foot. Sensory neurons in your skin relay this information to your spinal cord and brain at a speed of more than 150 miles (241 kilometers) per hour. Your brain then uses motor neurons to transmit the message back through your spinal cord to your foot to shake the bee off quickly. Motor neurons can relay this information at more than 200 miles (322 kilometers) per hour.
Riding a bike seems impossible at first. But soon you master it. How? As you practice, your brain sends “bike riding” messages along certain pathways of neurons over and over, forming new connections. In fact, the structure of your brain changes every time you learn, as well as whenever you have a new thought or memory.
It is well known that any exercise that makes your heart beat faster, like running or playing basketball, is great for your body and can even help improve your mood. But large-scale efforts of scientists from a group of institutes from the National Institutes of Health have recently showed that for a period of time after you’ve exercised, your body produces a chemical that makes your brain more receptive for gaining new knowledge. So if you’re stuck on a homework problem, go out and play a game of soccer, then try the problem again. You just might discover that you’re able to solve it.
12. According to the text, the most distinctive characteristic of the brain is its …
A) ability to control the body.
B) elaborateness.
C) size.
D) weight.
13. The claims that the brain is better than any computer because it …
A) processes more information.
C) can download information from different sources.
D) reacts to information more adequately.
14. According to the text, the work of brain neurons influences …
A) electricity production.
D) character of messages we send.
15. The narrator compares the work of neurons to a pinball machine to …
A) show the character of brain work.
B) raise the awareness of the brain’s nature.
C) stress the amount of information that the brain processes.
D) illustrate the shape of the neuron highways.
16. Comparing sensory and motor neurons, we can make a conclusion that …
A) motor neurons transmit information faster.
B) there are more motor neurons.
C) sensory neurons transmit information faster.
D) there are more sensory neurons.
17. The structure of brain changes when …
A) our memory fails.
B) new neurons appear.
C) we are riding a bike.
D) we acquire new knowledge.
18. Physical exercises proved to be good for …
A) the production of brain chemicals.
B) solving homework problems.
C) giving the brain a rest.
D) maintaining a good mood.
Аудирование Чтение Языковой материал Письмо Говорение
Выберите только ОДНО из двух предложенных заданий (40.1 или 40.2). Укажите его номер и выполните согласно данному плану. В ответе на задание 40 числительные пишите цифрами.
40.1 Imagine that you are doing a project on the amount of motor vehicles in the world. You have collected some data on the subject (see the table below).
Comment on the data in the table and give your personal opinion on the subject of the project.
| Country | Motor vehicles per 1000 people |
|---|---|
| USA | 816 |
| Canada | 685 |
| UK | 473 |
| Russia | 388 |
| India | 42 |
Write 200−250 words. Use the following plan:
— make an opening statement on the subject of the project work;
— select and report 2−3 main features;
— make 1−2 comparisons where relevant;
— outline a problem that can arise with the quantity of motor vehicles in the world and suggest the way of solving it
— draw a conclusion giving your personal opinion on the importance of motor vehicles
40.2 Imagine that you are doing a project on life expectancy in Russia. You have collected some data on the subject (see the diagram below).
Comment on the data in the diagram and give your personal opinion on the subject of the project.
Write 200−250 words. Use the following plan:
— make an opening statement on the subject of the project work;
— select and report 2−3 main features;
— make 1−2 comparisons where relevant;
— outline a problem that can arise with life expectancy and suggest the way of solving it;
— draw a conclusion giving your personal opinion on the importance of a high life expectancy